O₂

CO₂

1. Provide area for gas exchange

2. Move air to and from exchange surface

3. Protect respiratory surfaces

4. Defend respiratory system and other tissues from invasion by pathogenic organisms

5. Producing sounds involved in speaking, singing, or nonverbal communication

6. Assisting in the regulation of blood volume, blood pressure, and the control of bodily fluid pH

Respiratory epithelium

Location

Types

Lines majority or respiratory tract

1. Peusdostratisfied ciliated columnar (PSCC)-with goblet cells to produce mucus to trap foreign particles

2. Lamina propria (connective tissue layer)

Together make mucus membrane

1. Conduction zone

2. Respiratory zone

Zones of air movement

Conduction Zone

-Transports, warms, humidifies, and cleans air

-Environment to terminal bronchioles in lungs

Zones of air movement

Respiratory Zone

Gas exchange at the alveoli

Respiratory bronchioles to alveoli

-Primary airway for respiration

-Moistens and warms air

-Filters inhaled air via mucus

-Resonating chamber for speech

-Houses olfactory receptors

-Air passageway: Lined with PSCC

-Pharyngeal tonsils

-Contains opening to auditory tube

-Extends from soft palate to hyoid

-Lined with stratified squamous epithelium

-Shared with digestive system

-Palantine tonsils and lingual tonsils

Lower respiratory system

Trachea

-C_6-7 to T₅

-C rings of tracheal cartilages

-Composed of hyaline cartilage

-Stiffens tracheal walls and protects airway

-Posterior wall distorts, allowing food passege through esophagus

Lower respiratory

Bronchi

-1^o to 2^o to 3^o

-Right 1^o bronchi is wider and shorter than the left: foreign object more likely to lodge

-Trachea branches within mediastinum

-Secondary bronchi-->tertiary bronchi-->Bronchioles

-->Terminal bronchioles-->Respiratory bronchioles (site of gas exchange)

Site of gas exchange

-Surrounded by capillaries and elastic fibers

-Simple squamous epithelium

1. Alveolar type I: respiratory cells

2. Alveolar type II: surfactant cells

3. Alveolar macrophages: dust cells

-Most numerous/important

-Provides surface area for gas exchange

-thin=good for diffusion

-Produce surfactant (oily secretions) to reduce surface tension so that alveoli can maintain shape

-Prevents alveolar collapse during exhalation-->begin at 7-8 months of fetal development

3. Alveolar macrophages: dust cells

1. Alveolar epithelium: simple squamous epithelium

2. Fused basement membrane

3. Cappilary endothelium: simple squamous epithelium

AIR                                              EPITHELIA TISSUE

1. Nasal cavity                            Stratisfied squamous

2. Nasopharynx         Pseudostratisfied ciliated columnar

3. Oropharynx                              Stratisfied squamous

4. Laryngopharynx                       Stratisfied squamous

5. Larynx                                    PSCC

6. Trachea                                   PSCC

7. RT/LT primary bronchi              PSCC

8. Secondary bronchi                    PSCC

9. Tertiary bronchi                        PSCC

10. Terminal bronchioles               Simple cuboidal

11. Respiratory bronchioles           Simple cuboidal

12. Alveolar duct                          Simple squamous

13. Alveolar sac                           Simple squamous

14. Alveolus                                 Simple squamous

Diaphragm

External intercostals

internal costals

Primary inhalation muscles

Primary exhalation muscles

inhale: External intercostals and diaphragm

exhale: Internal intercostals

1. Mechanoreceptors: Detect changes in lung volume (pressure)

2. Chemoreceotors: Changes in levels of O₂ and CO₂

Respiratory centers of the brain

CN IX and X

1. Respiratory rhythmicity center

2. Apneustic center

3. Pneumotaxic center

Respiratory centers of the brain

1. Respiratory rhythmicity center

Sets basic respiratory pace

Located in medulla oblongata

Respiratory centers of the brain

2. Apneustic center

Used for sustaining strong, deep breathing

Located in pons

Respiratory centers of the brain

3. Pneumotaxic center

set limits to avoid over inflation of lungs

Located in pons

Cystic Fibrosis CF

Cause

Symptoms

Problems

Treatment

-Inherited disease

-Affects cells that produce mucus, sweat, saliva, and digest juices

-SYMPTOMS: chest congestion, activity intolerance, excessive coughing

-PROBLEMS:

Oversecretion of thicker, viscous mucus

Affects mucus escalator

Respiratory passageways become colgged

Leads to fatal bacterial infections

-TREATMENT: daily chest physiotherapy, aerosol breathing treatments, exercise -->designed to loosen thick mucus

parietal=membrane that creates cavity

visceral=membrane that directly covers organ

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Components

Length

1. GI Tract aka alimentary canal

-approx 30ft

2. Accessory organs

1. Digestion

2. Motility

3. Secretion

4. Absorption

5. Excretion

6.Compaction

Functions of the digestive system

1. Digestion:

2. Motility

3. Secretion

1. Digestion: mechanical and chemical breakdown of material

2. Motility: movement of material from the oral cavity to the anus ie swallowing/peristalsis

3. Secretion: exocrine release of enzymes into the lumen of the digestive tract for chemical digestion

Functions of the digestive system

4. Absorption:

5. Excretion:

6. Compaction:

4. Absorption: movement of material from the lumen into the blood stream

5. Excretion: wastes are secreted into the digestive tract

6. Compaction: dehydration to defacation

Layers of digestive tract

Superficial (inside tube)-->deep (outside of tube)

1. Tunica mucosa

2. Tunica submucosa

3. Tunica muscularis

4. Tunica serosa (visceral peritoneum)

mucus membrane=

a. epithelial tissue

b. loose connective tissue (lamina propria)

c. muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle)

2 layers of smooth muscle (circular & longitudinal)

3 layers in stomach (circular, longitudinal, oblique)

Connective tissue serous membrane

NOT in esophagus/rectum

1. Mechanical breakdown of solids into tiny particles. PRIMARY JOB

2. Chemical breakdown of food particles or liquids to yield molecules that can be absorbed by the body.  Shared job by stomach and small intestine

1. Rugae

2. gastric pits

90% nutrient absorption (mostly in jejunum) via enzymes

-Contains plicae, villi, microvilli=increase surface area

-Lacteal=absorption of lipids

1. Salivary glands

2. Liver

3. Gallbladder

4. Pancreas

-Stimulated by (parasympathetic) ANS

-Release enzymes

-Lubricates oral cavity, moistens food

-All 3 glands have slightly different secretions

-Parotid gland related to Mumps

1. Metabolic regulation

2. Hematological regulation

3. Synthesis of bile/bile salts

Liver functions

Metabolic regulation

via Hepatic portal vein

-Absorbed nutrients are further metabolized in the liver

-Toxins are broken down

-Fat soluble vitamins stored in liver

*Cleans food

Liver functions

Hematological Regulation

via Hepatic Artery

-Liver receives 25% of blood from aorta

-Breakdown of old/damaged blood cells

-Makes plasma proteins

*Cleans blood

Liver functions

Synthesis of bile/bile salts

Via bile duct

-Bile: pH buffer neutralize stomach acid

-Bile salts: aids in break down of lipids

Liver lobule

Corners of lobules

1. Hepatic Portal vein (O₂)

2. Hepatic artery (from intestine)

3. Bile duct (to intestine)

-Majority of pancreas has digestive (exocrine) function

-Release pancreatic juice to the duodenum via pancreatic duct for chemical digestion

1. Oral cavity

2. Oropharynx

3. Laryngopharynx

4. Esophagus

5. Stomach

6. Duodenum

7. Jejunum

8. Ileum

9. Ascending colon

10. Transverse colon

11. Descending colon

12. Sigmoid colon

13. Rectum

14. Anus

Group of villi in small intestine

-made of simple columnar epithelium

1. Removal of metabolic wastes

2. Regulate ionic concentration or plasma by controlling the amount lost in the urine

3. pH balance: removal of ammonia/hydrogen from body fluids

4. Regulate blood volume/pressure by controllin the amount of urine produced

5. Stimulate erythrocyte production

Function on nephron

*1.25 million nephrons per kidney

1. Filters blood

2. Reabsorbs what is needed

3. Excretes waste in the form of urine

1. Renal corpuscle: filtering component

2. Renal tubule: Series of tubules that specialize in absorption and secretion

Filtration layers of kidney

(In glomerulus)

1. Capillary endothelium

2. Basement membrane (basal lamina)

3. Glomerular epithelium

Filtration layers of kidney

(In glomerulus)

1. Capillary endothelium

Filtration layers of kidney

(In glomerulus)

2. Basement membrane (basal lamina)

Filtration layers of kidney

(In glomerulus)

3. Glomerular epithelium

JG apparatus

Hormones

-Maintain blood pressure

1. Renin

2. Erythropoietin

-Proximal convoluted tubule

-Loop of henle

-Distal convoluted tubule

-Collecting tubule/duct

Urinary bladder

-Trigone

Sphincter muscles

Involuntary: internal urethral sphincter (smooth muscle)

Voluntary: External urethral sphincter (skeletal muscle)

Antidiuretic hormone

-produced in hypothalamus

-Effects cells of collecting ducts

-Signals these cells to reabsorb water

Produced, stored, nourished, and transported by human reproductive system

Also produces:

Functional male and female gametes: sperm/ovum (fertilization produces zygote)

Sex hormones

1. Reproductive organs or gonads

2. Reproductive tracts

3.Accessory glands and organs

4. Perineal structures called external genitalia

Testosterone

1. Released by Leydig cells of the testes

2. Promotes production of mature sperm

3. Maintains accessory organs of reproductive tract

4. Influences secondary sexual characteristics

-Facilitates functional development of the sperm and stores mature sperm

-Degrades damaged sperm

Release sperm outside of the body

-Part of urinary and reproductive system

Production of spermatids

*occurs in seminiferous tubules of the testes

Maturation of spermatids to become sperm

*occurs in seminiferous tubules of the testes

Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands

-produce secretions that make up the majority of semen volume

-Sympathetic nervous system controls release

-Makes up approx 60% of semen volume

-Fluid contains high levels of sugar to provide nutrients to sperm cells

-Slightly alkaline to neutralize vaginal secretions

-Secretions are released into the ejaculatory duct

-Makes approx 30% of semen volume

-Fluid is a milky solution that contains several enzymes

-Seminalplasm secreted to act as a natural antibiotic to prevent UTIs

-Secretions are released into the urethra

-Makes 5% of semen volume

-Clear alkaline mucus that is a pH buffer: pre-ejaculate

-Lubricates glans penis

-Secretions are released into the urethra

Ovaries release estrogen

-Stimulates growth of the uterine wall (endometrium)

-Maintains accessory organs and glands of repro tract

-Influences secondary sexual characteristics

28 day cycle

1. Menses

2. Proliferative phase

3. Secretory phase

Uterine cycle:

1. Menses

Day 0-7

-arteries constrict, reducing blood flow to the endometruim.  The tissue of the endometium and blood from ruptured vessels slough off in the uterus lumen

day 7-14

-repair and growth of the endometrium tissue and blood vessels

day 14-28

-further development of the endometrium and increased glandular activity

-Oocytes are produced in the ovaries before birth

-By puberty there are 400,000 oocytes total

-During the ovarian cycle the oocyte mature

-Only about 500 will mature and ovulate during life

-Follicle cells provide nutrients to the oocytes

-Oocytes + follicular cells=follicle

1. Follicular phase (0-14)

2. Luteal phase (14-28)

Ovarian cycle:

Follicular phase

1. Follicular phase (0-14): formation of follicles in preparation for ovulation on day 14

STEP 1: Formation of primary follicles

STEP 2: Formation of secondary follicles

STEP 3: Formation of tertiary follicles

Ovarian cycle:

Luteal phase

 2. Luteal phase (14-28): formation of corpus luteum in preparation for fertilization

STEP 4: Ovulation (14): The oocyte is released from the ovary into uterine tubes

STEP 5: Corpus luteum formation: Remaining follicle cells form the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone and a small amount of estrogen

STEP 6: (unless fertilized) Degradation of corpus luteum: Corpus luteum degrades into scar tissue> New ovarian cycle begins