Aka coronal plane - divides front and back (anterior and posterior)

can be equal or unequal divisions

Aka midsagittal - divides down the center into right and left

Midsaggital indicates equal division

divides top and bottom

can be equal or unequal division

Contains heart and lungs

Right and left pleural cavity

Mediastinum

1) epithelial - covering

2) connective - support

3) muscle tissue - movement

4) nervous tissue - control

-cells arranged in continuous sheets

-cells are closely packed and tightly held together (high cellularity)

-found at boundary between two different environments (interface tissue)

-covering and lining epithelium: covers outer surfaces, lines inner surfaces

-glandular epithelium

General functions of epithelium (6)

(interface tissue)

1. protection of underlying tissues

2. secretion

3. absorption

4. diffusion

5. filtration

6. sensory reception

1. high cellularity

2. specialized contacts

3. polarity (apical and basal surface)

4. support by connective tissue (basement membrane)

5. avascular

6. nervous innervation

7. regeneration

1. basal lamina - secreted by epithelium

2. reticular lamina - part of underlying connective tissue

1. simple

2. stratified

1. squamous

2. cuboidal

3. columnar

Description: single layer of flattened cells with disc shaped central nuclei and sparse cytoplasm; the simplest of the epithelia

Function:allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important; produces lubricating fluid in serosae

Location:kidney glomeruli, air sacs of lungs, lining of heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels, lining of ventral body cavity (serosae), endothelium and mesothelium

Description:single layer of cubelike cells with large, spherical central nuclei

Function: secretion and absorption

Location: kidney tubules; ducts and secretory portions of small glands; ovary surface

Description: single layer of tall cells with round to oval nuclei; some cells bear cilia; layer may contain mucous-secreting unicellular glands (goblet cells)

Function: absorption; secretion of mucous, enzymes, and other substances; ciliary type propels mucous (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action

Location: non-ciliated type lines most of digestive tract (stomach to anal canal), gallbladder, and excretory ducts of some glands; ciliated variety lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uterus

Description: single layer of cells of differing heights, some not reaching the free surface; nuclei seen at different levels; may contain mucus-secreting goblet cells and bear cilia

Function: secretion, particularly of mucous; propulsion of mucous by ciliary action

Location: non-ciliated type in male's sperm-carrying ducts and ducts of large glands; ciliated variety lines the trachea, most of the upper respiratory tracts

Description: Thick membrane composed of multiple cell layers; basal cells are cuboidal or columnar and metabolically active; surface cells are flattened (squamous); in the keratinized type, the surface cells are full of keratin and are dead; basal cells are active in mitosis and produce the cells of the more superficial layers

Function: protects underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion

Location: non-keratinized type form the moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, vagina; keratinized variety forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane

Description: generally two layers of cubelike cells

Function: protection

Location: largest ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands and salivary glands

Description: several cell layers, basal cells usually cuboidal; superficial cells elongated and columnar

Function: protection; secretion

Location: rare in the body; small amounts in male urethra and in large ducts of some glands

-located on the apical surface of epithelium

-non-motile

-function to increase surface area of plasma membrane

-made up of actin filaments

-located on the apical surface of epithelium

-larger than microvilli

-function to move things along the surface of the cell

-composed of microtubules

-epithelia that make and secrete a product form glands

-secretions are aqueous fluids that usually contain proteins: hormones, mucous, sweat and oils, biles and digestive enzymes, milk

-secretions are EXOCYTOSED

1) Endocrine: 

-secretions = hormones

-hormones are released directly into extracellular fluid and then diffuse into bloodstream without ducts

-effector organs are far away

2) Exocrine

-secretions flow onto body surfaces or into cavities 

-secretions act locally; effector organ is nearby

-multicellular: multiple cells form a gland that secretes a product via a duct

-unicellular: one-celled gland (example: goblet cells)

1) cutaneous membranes - skin

2) mucous membranes - lines open cavities and organs

-tubes of the respiratory, digestive, reproductive, and urinary systems

3) serous membranes

-line closed cavities

-thoracic and abdominal cavities

-most abundant and diverse tissue

1) Connective Tissue Proper

2) Cartilage

3) Bone

4) Blood

-few cells, lots of extracellular matrix (low cellularity)

1) mesenchyme

2) fibroblast

3) fibrocyte

4) connective tissue proper

5) loose connective tissue

-areolar

-adipose 

-reticular

6) dense connective tissue 

-regular

-irregular

-elastic

1) mesenchyme

2) chondroblast

3) chondrocyte

4) cartilage

-hyaline

-fibrocartilage

-elastic

1) mesenchyme

2) osteoblast

3) osteocyte

4) osseous (bone)

-compact

-spongy (cancellous)

1) mesenchyme

2) hematopoietic stem cells

3) blood cells (and macrophages)

4) Blood

1) collagen fibers

-largest

-strongest

-ropelike

-function: tensile strength

2) elastic fibers

-intermediate

-branches

-function: recoil

3) reticular fibers

-smallest

-collagen FIBRILS

-networks

-function: support

Connective tissue proper: loose connective tissue, areolar

(most abundant type of connective tissue)

Description: gel-like matrix with all three fiber types; cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and some white blood cells

Function: wraps and cushions organs; its macrophages phagocytize bacteria; plays important role in inflammation; holds and conveys tissue fluid

Location: widely distributed under epithelia of body, e.g., forms lamina propria of mucous membranes; packages organs; surrounds capillaries

Description: matrix as in areolar connective tissue, but very sparse; closely packed adipocytes have nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplets

Function: provides reserve fuel; insulates against heat loss; supports and protects organs

Location: under skin in hypodermis, around kidneys and eyeballs, within abdomen, in breasts

Description: network of reticular fibers in a typical loose ground substance; reticular cells lie on the network

Function: fibers form a soft internal skeleton (stroma) that supports other cell types including white blood cells, macrophages, mast cells 

Location: lympoid organs (lymph nodes, bone marrow, spleen)

Description: primarily parallel collaen fibers; a few elastic fibers; major cell type is the fibroblast

Function: attaches muscles to bones or to muscles; attaches bones to bones; withstands great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction

Location: tendons, most ligaments, aponeuroses

Description: primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers; some elastic fibers; major cell type is the fibroblast; defense cells and fat cells are also present

Function: able to withstand tension in many directions; provides structural strength

Location: fibrous capsules of organs and joints; dermis of the skin; submucosa of digestive tract

Description: dense regular connective tissue containing a high proportion of elastic fibers

Function: allows recoil of tissues following stretching; maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries; aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration

Location: walls of large arteries; within certain ligaments associated with the vertebral column; within the walls of bronchial tubes 

Description: amorphous but firm matrix; collagen fibers form and imperceptible network; chondroblasts produce the matrix and, when mature (chondrocytes), lie in lacunae

Function: supports and reinforces; serves as resilient cushion; resists compressive stress

Location: forms most of the embryonic skeleton; covers the ends of long bones in joint cavities; forms costal cartilages of the ribs; cartilages of the nose, trachea, and larynx 

description: similar to hyaline cartilage, but more elastic fibers in matrix

function: maintains the shape of a structure while allowing great flexibility

location: supports the external ear (pinna); epiglottis

Description: matrix similar to but less firm than hyaline cartilage; thick collagen fibers predominate

Function: tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock

Location: intervertebral discs; pubic synthesis; discs of knee joints 

Description: Hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae. Very well vascularized

Function: Supports and protects (by enclosing); provides levers for the muscles to act on; stores calcium and other minerals and fat; marrow inside bones is the site for blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)

Location: Bones

Description: Red and white blood cells in a fluid matrix (plasma)

Function: Transport respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, and other substances 

Location: contained within blood vessels

Function: transports respiratory gases

-Biconcave disc shape

-No organelles 

1) skeletal muscle - body

2) cardiac muscle - blood

3) smooth muscle - lots of stuff

Description: Long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells; obvious striations

Function: voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression

Location: in skeletal muscles attached to bones or occasionally to skin

Description: Branching, striated, generally uninucleate cells that interdigitate at specialized junctions (intercalated discs)

Function: As it contracts, it propels blood into circulation; involuntary control

Location: The walls of the heart

Description: spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; no striations; cells arranged closely to form sheets

Function: Propels substances or objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby) along internal passageways; involuntary control

Location: Mostly in the walls of hollow organs

1) brain

2) spinal cord

3) nerves

1) neurons - functional cells

2) neuroglia (glial cells) - helps support functional cells 

Description: neurons are branching cells; cell processes that may be quite long extend from the nucleus-containing cell body; also contributing to nervous tissue are nonconducting supporting cells, neuroglia 

Function: Transmit electrical signals from sensory receptors and to effectors (muscles and glands) that control the activity of the effector organs

Location: Brain, spinal cord, and nerves

-Good regenerators: epithelium, bone

-Poor regenerators: skeletal muscle, cartilage

-Almost no regeneration: cardiac muscle, nervous tissue

1) Skin (integument)

2) Accessory organs 

-nails

-hair

-sweat/oil glands

1) epidermis

2) dermis

(and hypodermis - not a layer of skin)

1) thermoregulation

2) protection

3) sensory reception

4) excetion

5) vitamin D production

-most superficial layer of skin

-avascular

-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

-contains 4 principle types of cells (kertainocytes, melanocytes, langerhans cells, merkel cells)

1) keratinocytes (>90%)

2) Melanocytes

3) Langerhans cells (dendritic cells)

4) Merkel cells (tactile epithelial cells)

1) thin skin - areas of skin where little friction develops

-most of the body

-FOUR epidermal layers

2) thick skin - areas of skin where friction commonly develops

-palms, feet, fingertips

-FIVE epidermal layers

-thick has no hair follicles

-thick has stratum lucidum

1) stratum corneum 

2) stratum granulosum

3) stratum spinosum

4) stratum basale

1) stratum corneum

2) stratum lucidum

3) stratum granulosum

4) stratum spinosum

5) stratum basale

1) melanin

2) carotene

3) hemoglobin

1) pheomelanin - imparts yellow to red colors, particularly noticeable in hair

2) eumelanin - imparts a brown to black color

1) connective tissue (tough)

2) blood vessels

3) lymphatic vessels

4) nerves

1) papillary (nipple) layer

2) reticular layer

1) obtain and use nutrients

2) dispose of wastes

3) replicate/regenerate/repair

-these functions carried out by the cell's organelles

1. nucleus

2. cytoplasm

3. plasma membrane

1) phospholipids

2) cholesterol

3) glycolipids

-amphipathic

-dynamic arrangement

-Found among the lipid TAILS of the bilayer

-structural integrity of the plasma membrane

-Only found in layer facing extracellular fluid

-Cellular adhesion and recognition (name tag)

1. Protective barrier

2. Cellular communications (via receptor proteins)

3. Regulates movement of substances in and out (membrane transport)

-The plasma membrane is selectively permeable

-some solutes simply diffuse across the lipid bilayer (no proteins or ATP needed)

-integral proteins act as transporters and channels to assist in the entrance of impermeant molecules

-carriers = passive

-pumps = active

Diffusion of water through the lipid bilayer through aquaporin (passive mode of transport)

-looks more like facilitated than simple diffusion

1) phagocytosis - used to eat large molecules; pseudopods; non-specific

2) pinocytosis - "drinking"; pseudopods; non-specific

3) receptor-mediated endocytosis; highly specific; no pseudopods

1) cytosol - jelly-like fluid in which all other intracellular elements are suspended

-water, enzymes, ions

2) organelles - specialized structures within a cell that have characteristic shapes and perform specific functions

3) inclusions - temporary structures

-pigments, food stores (glycogen), crystals of protein

1) mitochondria

2) ribosomes

3) endoplasmic reticulum

4) golgi apparatus

5) lysosomes

6) peroxisomes

7) cytoskeleton

8) centrioles

9) nucleus

-functions in protein synthesis

-made of proteins + ribosomal RNA

-2 subunits 

-made in nucleolus

1. rough ER

2. scattered free ribosomes

3. mitochondria

-network of membrane-enclosed cavities (flattened sacs or tubules) within the cytoplasm

-Rough ER: protein synthesis

-Smooth ER: lipid synthesis (making/breaking down fats) AND calcium storage

-cis face = receiving side

-trans face = exporting side

A. vesicle contents destined for exocytosis

B. vesicle to be incorporated into the plasma membrane

C. lysosome containing acid hydrolase enzymes

"digest things"

both things brought and "housekeeper" for things leaving

"peroxide bodies"

removes toxic wastes by using special enzymes

double membrane

smooth outer membrane

highly convoluted inner membrane to increase surface area for ATP production

-elaborate network of rods running throughout the cytoplasm

-supports the cell's shape and produces movements

-double membrane

-nucleolus is non membrane-bound

-can be up to 3 or 4 nucleoli

-ribosomal subunits made in nucleolus

-ROUGH ER ORIGINATES FROM OUTER MEMBRANE OF NUCLEUS

-pores present in nuclear envelope for transport and messages

-Gross anatomy (Greek for 'to cut apart'; dissection)

-Regional anatomy

-Systemic anatomy

-Surface anatomy: landmarks

-Microscopic anatomy (histology)

1) chemical level - atoms combine to form molecules

2) cellular level - cells are made up of molecules

3) tissue level - tissues consist of similar types of cells

4) organ level - organs are made up of different types of tissues

5) organ system level - organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely

6) organismal level - the human organism is made up of many different organ systems 

1) Serous membranes

2) Mucous membranes

-lines cavities that are open to the outside environment

-cells secrete mucous

-oral and nasal cavities, vagina, anus

-lines cavities that are closed to outside environment

-cells secrete serous fluid

-thoracic and abdominal cavities

outer balloon wall - parietal serosa

air - serous cavity

inner balloon wall - visceral serosa 

-continuous with each other

1) visceral layer - touches the organ

2) parietal layer - touches the body wall