Define Endocrine

*uses chemical messangers to relay information between  cells

*regulates long-term processes of growth, development & reproduction

Name the Endocrine Glands

1. pituitary gland

2. hypothalamus

3. thyroid gland

4. parathyroid gland

5. pineal gland

6. adrenal glands

7. pancreas

Name the Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions

1. heart

2. thymus

3. adipose tissue

4. digestive tract

5. kidneys

6. gonads

Hypothalamus, Pineal & Pituitary

Location

Hypothalamus

Hormones & Actions

ADH - maintains salt/H20 balance in extracellular fluid

Oxytocin - stimulates smooth muscle contraction of uterus/childbirth

Regulatory Hormones (RH) - control secretions of anterior pituitary

Anterior Pituitary

Hormones & Actions

ACTH - secretion of glucocorticoids

TSH - secretion of thyroid hormones

GH - growth, protein syn, lipid mobilization, catabolism

PRL - milk production

FSH - secretion of estrogen, follicle development & sperm maturation

LH - ovulation, formation of corpus luteum, secretion of progesterone

MSH - increase melanin synthesis in epidermis

Posterior Pituitary

Hormones & Actions

ADH (antidiuretic hormone) - reabsorption of water, elevation of blood volume & pressure

Oxytocin - labor contractions, milk ejection; contractions of ductus deferens & prostate gland

Thyroid & Parathyroid

Location

Pineal Gland

Hormones & Actions

Melatonin - inhibiting reproductive functions,

antioxidant & influencing circadian rhythms

Thyroid

Hormones & Actions

T4 & T3 (TH) - control body metabolism & cellular respiration

Calcitonin - regulates calcium concentrations in body fluids

Parathyroid

Hormones & Actions

PTH - regulates blood Ca levels along with calcitonin

Adrenal Medulla & Cortex

Location

Adrenal Medulla

Hormones & Actions

Epinephrine & Norepinephrine:

trigger mobilization of glycogen reserves in skeletal muscle; break down stored fat into fatty acids; break down glycogen in the liver; increase rate and force of cardiac contraction

Adrenal Cortex

Hormones & Actions

Cortisol

Corticosterone

Aldosterone

Androgens

Chemical Classes of Hormones

1. amino acid derivitives

2. peptide hormones

3. lipid derivatives

Neuroendocrine Reflex

initiated by sensory neurons that trigger a release of hormones

Endocrine Reflex

Paracrine

chemical signal transfers information from cell to cell in a single tissue

Functions of Blood

1. Transport of materials from cells

2. Regulation of Ph

3. Clotting - restriction of fluid loss at injry sites

4. Defense against toxins & pathogens

5. Stabilization of body temp - homeostasis

Materials transported in blood

O2 & CO2

Nutrients

Hormones

Immune system components

Waste

2 Cheif Components of Blood

Plasma

&

Formed Elements

Main Components of Plasma

90% Water

Plasma Protiens

1. Albumins

2. Globulins

3. Fibrinogens

4. Other - specialized

Formed Elements

1. RBC

2. WBC

3. Platelets

 Erythrocytes

RBC - structure creates more surface area for main duty of O2 transport

Leukocytes

WBC - function in immunity

Types of WBCs

 Neutrophil

phagocytize bacteria

Eosinophil

kill parasitic worms; complex role in allergy & asthma

Basophil

release histamine; contain heparin (anticoagulant)

Lymphocytes

Mount immune response by direct cell attack or via antibodies

Monocyte

Phagocytosis; develop into macrophages in tissue

Granulocytes

1. Neutrophil

2. Eosinophil

3. Basophil

Agranulocytes

1. Lymphocyte

2. Monocyte

Platelets - seal small tears in blood vessels; instrumental in blood clotting

Agglutination

The clumping of cells such as bacteria or red blood cells in the presence of an antibody. The antibody or other molecule binds multiple particles and joins them, creating a large complex. An example occurs when people are given blood transfusions of the wrong blood group.

Steps in Coagulation

To return to homeostasis

1. Vascular - blood vessels constrict

2. Platelet - stick to injury site

3. Coagulation - clotting plasma proteins are activated in order to convert fibrinogen to fibrin

Blood Typing

Pericardial Cavity 

the space between the layers of the pericardium that contains fluid that lubricates the membrane surfaces and allows easy heart movement

Major Structures of Heart

see drawings

R & L Atria

R & L Ventricles

Inferior & Superior Vena Cava

Aorta (Arch & Descending)

Tricuspid & Mitral Valve

Pulmonary Arteries & Veins

Chordae Tendinae

Trace the flow of blood through the body

Superficial Coronary Vessels

Describe the conducting system of the heart

The conducting system of the heart consists of cardiac muscle cells and conducting fibers - purkinje fibers -  that are specialized for initiating impulses and conducting them rapidly through the heart; initiates the cardiac cycle and coordinate the contractions of cardiac chambers. Both atria contract together, as do the ventricles, but atrial contraction occurs first.

The conducting system provides the heart its automatic rhythmic beat. For the heart to pump efficiently and the systemic and pulmonary circulations to operate in synchrony, the events in the cardiac cycle must be coordinated.

EKG

Complete Cardiac Cycle

Systole & Diastole

Stroke Volume

mL of blood per beat

Heart Rate

normal - 75 bpm

beats per minutes

Cardiac Output

CO = HR x SV

CO = mL/min

blood volume pumped by LV in 1 min

Blood Pressure

systole

over

diastole

high to low pressure - simple physics

Bainbridge Reflex

also called the atrial reflex, is an increase in heart rate due to an increase in central venous pressure; increased blood volume is detected by stretch receptors located in both atria at the venoatrial junctions.

5 major types of blood vessels

Arteries

Arterioles

Capillaries

Venules

Veins

Factors that affect BP

As blood travels through the arterial system, resistance from the walls of the blood vessels reduces the pressure and velocity of the blood.

The diastolic blood pressure, measured during ventricle relaxation, is about 75 mm Hg in these arteries. As blood travels through the arterial system, resistance from the walls of the blood vessels reduces the pressure and velocity of the blood.

Fluid Movement in the Capillary Bed

• As blood enters the capillary bed on the arteriole end, the blood pressure in the capillary vessel is greater than the osmotic pressure of the blood in the vessel. The net result is that fluid moves from the vessel to the body tissue.
• At the middle of the capillary bed, blood pressure in the vessel equals the osmotic pressure of the blood in the vessel. The net result is that fluid passes equally between the capillary vessel and the body tissue. Gasses, nutrients, and wastes are also exchanged at this point.
• On the venule end of the capillary bed, blood pressure in the vessel is less than the osmotic pressure of the blood in the vessel. The net result is that fluid, carbon dioxide and wastes are drawn from the body tissue into the capillary vessel.

Effects of Chemoreceptors & Baroreceptors on Heart Rate

Baroreceptors are stretch receptors in the wall of some blood vessels. They are involved in the control of arterial pressure through the discharge of impulses to the cardiovascular centre when there is distension due to a change in the blood pressure

Chemoreceptors are sensitive to any change in the chemical composition of the blood, such as a decrease in oxygen level and pH of the blood or an increase in the carbon dioxide level. These receptors send impulses to the cardiovascular centre which in turn increases the sympathetic stimulation to the blood vessels causing an increase in blood pressure. Chemoreceptors also stimulate the respiratory centres in the brain to increase the rate of respiration.

Major Vessels of the Pulmonary System

S. & I. Vena Cava

Capillaries

Pulmonary Trunk

Pulmonary Artery

Major Vessels of the Systemic System

Aorta

Arch, Abdominal, Thoracic Aorta

Braciocepalic Arteries

Carotid Arteries

Sublclavian Arteries

Pulmonary Veins

Capillaries

Functions of the Lymphatic System

To produce, maintain & distribute lymphocytes which opperate in immunity and protection

Major Lymphoid Organs

Cervical lymph nodes

thoracic duct

R. Lymphatic duct

Axillary lymph nodes

Mammary gland lymphatics

cisterna chyli

lumbar, pelvic, inguinal, upper & lower limb lymph nodes

Tonsil

Thymus

Spleen

Mucosa

Appendix

Specific vs. Nonspecific Defenses

Specific (Adaptive)

protect against specific pathogens, depend on activities of lymphocytes, specific resistance (immunity

NonSpecific (Innate)

always work the same way, against any type of invading agent, nonspecific resistance

NonSpecific Defenses

1. Physical Barriers

2. Phogocytes

3. Immunological surveillance

4. Interferons

5. Complement

6. Inflammatory response

7. Fever

Specific Defenses

1. T Cells - cell mediated immunity

2. B Cells - antibody mediated immunity

Immunological Surveillance

A theory that the immune system continually recognizes and removes malignant cells that arise during one's life.

Types of Immunity

1. Innate - present at birth

2. Adaptive - after birth

3. Active

4. Passive

Active Immunity

naturally acquired through environmental exposure to pathogens; artificially through vaccines

Passive Immunity

naturally acquired by antibodies from the mother

Distinguish between antigens & antibodies

An antibody is a protein produced by a host to bind to, and thus inactivate, foreign particles. The particle is called the antigen. It is frequently but not always a protein. The binding of antibody to antigen is very specific, so that, if all goes well, the antibody binds to that specific antigen only.

Major immunoglobins

1. IgG - resistance against viruses, bacteria & toxins

2. IgE - relases chemicals that accelerate local inflammation

3. IgD - located on the surface of B cells

4. IgM - first responder

5. IgA - glandular secretions

Bacterial vs Viral Defenses

Functions of the Respiratory System

1. provides gas exhange between air and circulating blood

2. moves air to and from lungs

3. protects respiratory surfaces from outside environment

4. produces sounds

5. participates in olfactory sense

Respiratory Tract

Nose, nasal cavity, hard & soft palate, internal nares, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchii, secondary bronchus, tertiary brochus, bronchioles, terminal bronchiole, respiratory bronchiole, alveoli

Surfactant

oily secretion

coats alveolar surfaces and reduces surface tension

Pleural Cavities

separated by the mediastinum

holds a lung

lined with a serous membrane (the pleura)

Respiratory Rate

number of breaths per minute

Tidal Volume

volume of air moved per breath

Respiratory Minute Volume

resp rate x tidal volume

measures pulmonary ventilation

Expiratory Reserve Volume

after normal exhalation

Residual Volume

after maximal exhalation

Inspiratory Reserve Volume

after a normal inspiration

Gas Transport

Major Structures of the Kidney

Nephrons

where urine production begins

smallest functional unit of the kidney

Nephronic Regions

1. Renal corpuscle

2. proximal convoluted tubule

3. nephron loop

4. distal convoluted tubule

5. collecting duct

6. papillary duct

Renal Corpuscle

filtration of plasma

Parts of the Nephron Loop

Effect of Kidney function on BP

kidneys remove waste from blood, therefore poor functioning kidneys would cause an increase in BP

kidneys also produce hormones that regulate blood pressure

Regulation of Urea, Na, K, Chloride & Glucose in kidney

micturition reflex

relaxation of the urethral sphincter in response to increased pressure in the bladder

Female Gonads

ovaries

[image]

Male Gonads

Testis

[image]

Male Reproductive Tract

testes

epididymis

ductus deferens

ejaculatory duct

urethra

accessory organs: seminal glands, prostate gland, bulbo-urethral glands, scrotum, penis

Female Reproductive Tract

ovaries

uterine tubes

uterus

cervix

vagina

external genetalia

Sperm Formation

Spermatogenesis begins when one of the spermatogonia cells matures and grows to become a primary spermatocyte. This cell undergoes meiosis I to produce two secondary spermatocytes. After meiosis II, four haploid spermatids result. All four spermatids continue to develop into mature sperm.

Ova Formation

Oogenesis begins in a girl's ovaries during fetal development; cells called oogonia develop into primary oocytes. These cells enter meiosis I, but then stop.

Years later, at puberty, hormones cause oogenesis to continue. During each menstrual cycle, one primary oocyte completes meiosis I and leaves the ovary (ovulation). If fertilization occurs, the oocyte completes meiosis II to become an egg (ovum). The cytoplasm divides unequally, so only one egg is produced; the remaining cells (called polar bodies) die.

Male Hormonal Regulation

Male reproductive system is regulated by negative feedback.

Testosterone — hormone that is secreted in the testes influencing the production of sperm and producing secondary sex hormones
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
FSH goes to seminerfous tubules and cause spermatocyte to develop into the sperm. In the seminerfous are also sertoli cell which are designed to nourish, mature and develop the sperm.
Leutenizing hormone
LH goes to other cells in the testes called Leydig cells causing production of testosterone.
Seminiferous Tubule — where the sperm is produced
Sertoli Cells — help nourish, develop the cell
Leydig (interstitial) cells — produces testerone
These are the cell that are targeted by the LH
Cause the production of Testosterone

Female Hormonal Regulation

Estrogen: This hormone rises throughout Week 1 and Week 2 of your cycle. It then falls sharply in the first half of Week 3, then rises again for the second half of Week 3. Once your premenstrual Week 4 arrives, this hormone falls again all week long until it reaches its lowest level at the end of your cycle.
How estrogen affects you: Estrogen impacts your mood, optimism, brain skills, chattiness, energy, appetite, extroversion, stress, desire to find a mate and pain threshold.

Testosterone: This hormone that’s traditionally associated with men is also produced in a woman’s body–although in much smaller amounts. While the amount of testosterone produced is relatively level all cycle long with a slight increase during the middle of your cycle during ovulation, the amount of testosterone your body uses actually depends on your estrogen level. The more estrogen you have, the more effects of testosterone you will feel. So, if you’re in a high estrogen week, you will feel more effects of testosterone. If you’re in a low estrogen week, you will feel fewer effects of testosterone. For the sake of simplicity, in the Hormone Horoscopes and Hormonology Tips, I pair estrogen and testosterone–for instance, I’ll say, “In Week 2 when estrogen and testosterone are high” or “In Week 4 when estrogen and testosterone are low”.
How testosterone affects you: Testosterone impacts brain skills, impulsiveness, libido, energy, desire for adventure, competitiveness and courage.

Progesterone: This hormone typically associated with pregnancy rises in Week 3 of your cycle, then falls throughout Week 4.
How progesterone affects you: Progesterone impacts your appetite, cravings, desire to “nest” (meaning to make your home more comfortable) and desire for safety. It also makes you sleepy and can make you forgetful and less eloquent as you speak.

Structures of the Mammary Gland

Ovarian & Uterine Cycles

Primary Germ Layers

Ectoderm
The ectoderm is the outermost layer of the primary germ layers and eventually becomes the epidermis or skin, brain and the nervous system. The ectoderm also gives rise to other external bodily surfaces.

Mesoderm
The mesoderm is the center layer of the primary germ layers, wedged between the ectoderm and endoderm. The mesoderm is responsible for the development of a gelatin-like substance known as mesenchyme. Mesenchyme is responsible for the development and growth of muscles, bones, blood and other tissues.

Endoderm
The endoderm is the innermost layer of the primary germ layers. The endoderm is responsible for the development of the lining of the stomach and intestines, mucous membranes and other internal organs and their linings.

Embryonic vs Extraembryonic Tissue

embryonic - 3 germ layers

extraembryonic - yolk sac, amnion, chorion, allantois

Placental Layers

Function of HCG

Phases of Parturition

1. Dilation

2. Expulsion

3. Placental

Neonatal Development

First Trimester: period of embryological and early fetal development during which the rudiments of all the major organ systems appear.

Second Trimester: development of organs and organ systems up until 6th month

Thrid Trimester: rapid fetal growth; adipose tissue; fetus' major organ systems can become fully functional

First Trimester

Cleavage

Implantation

Placentation

Embryogenesis

Second & Third Trimesters

Maternal organ systems support the fetus

Uterus undergoes structural & functional changes

3 Main Fluid Compartments of the Body

1. Circulatory

2. Extracellular

3. Intracellular