Term
| Define: Gross anatomy, histology, embryology, neuroanatomy |
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Definition
gross anatomy- study of anatomy at the macroscopic level
histology- study of microscopic structures of tissues
embryology- study of embryonic development (3 months= embryo, +6 months= fetus)
neuroanatomy-study of nervous system (CNS, PNS) |
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Term
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Definition
embryo- first 3 months
fetus- after 3 months |
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Term
| define the following planes: frontal, transverse, midsaggital, medial, lateral, superior, inferior, proximal, distal |
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Definition
Frontal- front and back
Transverse- top and bottom
midsaggital- left and right side
medial-- to the midline
lateral- to the sides
superior- on supe
inferior- on bottom
proximal- closer to top/body
distal- farther away from bottom |
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Term
| What are the three germ layers of the body and what do they develop into? |
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Definition
Ectoderm= outer germ layer which forms the CNS, epithelium
and nerves
Mesoderm= forms muscle, dermis, connective tissue, heart, blood, kidney and spleen
Endoderm= inner germ layer that forms the stomach, liver, pancreas, GI, bladder, trachea, and lungs |
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Term
| What are the four basic tissue types |
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Definition
1.Epithelia
2.Connective
3.Muscular
4.Nervous |
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Term
| General features and functions of the epithelial tissue |
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Definition
-closely aggregated cells, very little extracellular matrix
-Functions are to cover surfaces and allow for absorption (gut) secretion (glands) and sensation (neuropithelium). |
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Term
| Glandular epithelium: Exocrine vs. Endrocrine, Secretory vs. Ducts, and Simple vs. Compound |
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Definition
Exocrine- secrete products through ducts (digestive, saliva, sweat)
Endocrine- are ductless and secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream (pituitary, thyroid, adrenal)
Secretory- endocrine (hormones)
Ducts- exocrine (digestive)
Simple- without branching duct (endocrine)
Compound- with branching ducts (exocrine) |
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Term
| Classifying epithelium: arrangement of layers (3) |
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Definition
Simple- one layer
Pseudostratified- looks like more than one layer because nucleus is at different layers, but is actually only one layer.
Stratified- more than one layer |
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Term
| Classifying epithelium: Cell shape |
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Definition
1.Squamous- very short, wide cells
2.Cuboidal- as tall as wide
3.Columnar- much taller than wide |
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Term
| What are the three types of simple epithelium? Where do they occur? |
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Definition
1.Simple squamous- one layer with very short and wide cells (blood vessels)
2.Simple cuboidal- one layer with cells as tall as wide (pancreas)
3.Simple ciliated columnar- one layer with cells that are much taller than wide, with cilia. Occur in lungs. |
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Term
| Types of stratified epithelium and where they are found |
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Definition
1.Stratified squamous- mouth
2.Transitional epithelium- the number of cells/layers of them change with fullness of the bladder. When bladder is full then there is less and when the bladder is empty then there is more.
3.Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium: lung |
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Term
| Types of stratified epithelium and where they are found |
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Definition
1.Stratified squamous- mouth
2.Transitional epithelium- the number of cells/layers of them change with fullness of the bladder. When bladder is full then there is less and when the bladder is empty then there is more.
3.Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium: lung |
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Term
| Function of the basement membrane in epithelium, what it consists of |
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Definition
-connects epithelium to connective tissue, which is needed as the epithelium is not vascularized.
-Consists of the Basal lamina, and reticular lamina (next to the connective tissue) |
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Term
Carcinomas: what are they, and what percentage of tumours do they start
What happens after carcinomas have punctured the basement membrane? |
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Definition
-malignant tumours of the epithelial cell origin
-After age of 45, 90% of all tumours are of epithelial origin
After carcinomas penetrate the basement membrane then they have reached the vasculature and they can metasize |
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Term
| What three things make up connective tissue? |
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Definition
| Made of cells, extraceullar matrix (collagen and fibres) |
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Term
| What is the most common cell of connective tissue? What is the difference between fibroblasts and fibrocysts? |
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Definition
Fibroblasts are the most common
Fibroblasts- metabolically active. Synthesize the extracellular matrix, part of healing and scar formation.
Fibrocysts- metabolically inactive (quiescent). |
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Term
| Cells of connective tissue (5) |
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Definition
Macrophages- phagocytes, part of the inflammatory/immune response, derived in the bone marrow.
Mast cells- release histamine (allergic reaction), involved in inflammatory/immune response, derived from bone marrow.
Plasma cells- create antibodies, have a large basophilic membrane due to RER
Leukocytes- travel from BV to connective tissue by diapedesis
Adipose cells- storage of fats |
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Term
| what are the three fibre types of connective tissue? |
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Definition
1.Collagen
2.Reticular fibres- Collagen III are very thin and only visible with special staining
3.Elastic fibres- resistant to pulling |
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Term
| Ground substance of connective tissue: what are the three molecules |
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Definition
1.Glycosaminoglycans (GAGS)- polysaccharides, hyaluronic acid
2.Proteoglycans (proteins + GAGAS)- dematan, chrondroitin, keratan, heparan-sulfate |
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Term
| Where is scars and edema formed? |
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Definition
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Term
Define Integument
What cells are epidermis made up of? |
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Definition
Integument- skin and its derivatives (sebaceous glands, nail, hair, sweat glands)
Epidermis is made up of stratified squamous epithelium, keratinized (keratinocytes) |
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Term
| Explain the layers of the epidermis and what is occurring through the layers? |
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Definition
1.Corneum- a nucleated cells filled with keratin filaments
2.Granulosum- Keratohyalin granules
3.Spinosum- Spinous process, contains langheran cells
4.Germinnativum- stem cells into keratinocytes
Stem cells in the lowest layer are replacing the cells in the upper layers |
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Term
| Cells of the epidermis (4) |
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Definition
Keratinocytes- water barrier
Melanocytes- secrete melanin and distribute it to keratinocytes
Langerhan cells- antigen-presenting cells
Merkels cells- responsible for cutaneous sensations |
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Term
| Innervation: what nerves does connective tissue have and what sensations do they cover? |
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Definition
Free nerve endings- touch, temperature, and pain
Encapsulated nerve endings- Pacinian Corpuscles (vibratory), Meissner Corpuscles (touch), Krause Corpuscles (mechanical pressure)
** Touch is shared between both free nerve endings and encapsulated |
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Term
| What are the four derivatives of the skin? |
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Definition
1.Sevaceous glands
2.Sweat glands
3.Arrector pili muscle- rising hair
4.Nails |
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Term
| What tissue is cartilage and bone classified under? |
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Definition
| They are types of connective tissue |
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Term
| What is the similarities and differences between the three cartilage types? |
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Definition
| They all consist of CHondrocyte, but differ in their make up of extracellular matrix |
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Term
| what are the three types of cartilage |
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Definition
| hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage |
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Term
| Hyaline cartilage: What does the extracellular matrix consist of? What does the cells occur in? |
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Definition
Extracellular matrix: Collagen II, Proteoglycans, Chondronectin
Cells: Chondrocytes occur in lacuna as an isogenous group. Have no blood vessels and occur by diffusion. |
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Term
| Hyaline cartilage: What is a Isogenous group? What is Apositional and Interstitial growth? What types of tissues does this occur in? What is the perichondrium and what is it capable of? |
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Definition
Isogenous group- a cluster of chondrocytes that are formed through a progenitor cell.
Apositional growth- cartilage grows in thickness due to increased extracellular matrix on the peripheral cartilage surface, which is accompanied by new chondroblasts that develop in the perichondrium.
Interstitial growth- growth within the centre of the cartilage by the chondrocytes dividing
Perichondrium-The dense irregular fibrous membrane of connective tissue covering the surface of cartilage except at the endings of joints. It is capable of differentiating into chondrocytes that results in appositional growth (increase in cartilage). |
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Term
| What are the three places/functions of hyaline cartilage? |
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Definition
1.Embryonic Skeleton- able to change into adult skeleton
2.Trachea- contains hyaline cartilage which is why it is able to stay open
3.Hyaline cartilage covers joints, but does not have perichondrium so it remains smooth. |
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Term
| Elastic fibres: What does their extracellular matrix contain? Where are they found? |
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Definition
Extracellular matrix consists of collagen II and elastic fibres.
Examples are the external ear, eustachian tube, epiglottis (serves to separate the GI system from the respiratory). |
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Term
| Fibrocartilage: what is its extracellular matrix made up of? What are some examples? |
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Definition
Extracellular matrix is made up of a lot of collagen I fibres (dense connective tissue) and collagen II.
Found in intervertebral discs, symphysis pubis, sternoclavicular joint, temporomandibular joint, meinici, and certain tendons. |
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Term
| What is the difference between tendons and ligaments |
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Definition
tendons- connect muscle to bone
ligaments- connect bone to bone |
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Term
| What are the four different types of bone and where are they found? |
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Definition
1.Long bone- made up of the Epiphysis (ends), metaphysis (in between), and diaphysis (shaft). Example is the tibia.
2.Short- carpal and metacarpals
3.Flat- skull
4.Irregular- vertebrae |
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Term
| What is the sequence of cells in the bone |
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Definition
1.Osteoprogenitors
2.Osteoblasts
3.Osteocytes
4.Osteoclasts (bone marrow) |
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Term
| What is the things extracellular matrix can be made of? |
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Definition
| Collagen I, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins |
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Term
| What gets mineralized in bone and with what? |
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Definition
| Occurs of the extracellular matrix by calcium and phosphorus: hydroxyapatite crystals. |
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Term
| What is the function of bone tissue? |
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Definition
| Support (skeleton), protect (skull), and store (calcium and phosphate) |
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Term
| Define mesenchyme (osteoprogenitor cells) and osteoid |
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Definition
| Mesenchyme- contains the stem cells called osteoprogenitor cells, that develop into osteoblasts. |
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Term
| Osteocytes: Where do they occur? What is their function |
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Definition
They are located in lacunae and canaliculi
Canaiculi- canals that allow the passage of vasculature to the bone. |
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Term
| Define a osteon/haversion canale, and volkmann canal |
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Definition
Osteon/haversion canal- the fundamental functional unit of compact bone, are cylindrical systems
Volkmanns canals are located inside osteons, |
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Term
| Intramembraneous ossification: how does it work and where does it occur |
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Definition
| bone is created on mesenchyme (embryonic tissue) directly (ex. skull). Involves growth within the bones (intra) |
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Term
| Endochondral ossification |
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Definition
| Mesenchyme makes chondroblasts (hyaline cartilage), which serves as a template and then makes bone and creates long bone. |
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Term
| What are the four steps to bone remodellings |
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Definition
1.Intramembraneous- periosteal proliferation
2.Hyaline cartilage- endochrondral
3.Spongy- newly formed primary bone, forms callus
4.Compact- healed fracture, secondary bone |
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Term
| Define the following diseases: Pagets disease, osteoporosis, rickets, scurvy |
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Definition
Pagets disease- uncontrolled osteoclast and osteoblact activity lead to larger but unorganized bones that are prone to fractures.
Osteoporosis- respiration by osteoclasts exceeds deposition by osteoblasts, which lead sot bone fractures and vertebrae compressions
Rickets- insufficient calcium (or vitamine D needed for adulthood (osteomalacia) leads to abnormal calcification of the bone matrix.
Scurvy- vitamin C deficiency results in non-calcifiable collage of the bone matrix. |
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Term
| Axial skeleton- what does it consist of? |
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Definition
Skull (27)
Cranium (11)- frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid, inf. nasal concae, vomer.
Face (!0)- nasal, maxillezygonatic, mandible, lacrimal, palatine
Auditory ossicles- malleus, incus, staples
Hyoid
Vertebral column
Thorax 25 (ribs 24 and sternum 1) |
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Term
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Definition
1.Upper limbs:
Pectoral girdle- clavicle, scapula
Humerus, Ulna, Radius, Carpals, Metacarpals, Phalangs
2.Lower limbs
Pelvic girdles (hip or pelvic)
Femur, Patella, Tibia, Fibula, Tarsals, Metatarsals, Phalangs |
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Term
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Definition
1.Upper limbs:
Pectoral girdle- clavicle, scapula
Humerus, Ulna, Radius, Carpals, Metacarpals, Phalangs
2.Lower limbs
Pelvic girdles (hip or pelvic)
Femur, Patella, Tibia, Fibula, Tarsals, Metatarsals, Phalangs |
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Term
| Describe where the synovial membrane is found, what it contains in it and where it comes from |
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Definition
| Synovial membrane is located inside joints. It contains synovial fluid which comes from the dialysate from plasma, and its function is to lubricate, provide nutrition and have cells for phagocytosis. |
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Term
| What are the three different types of muscle tissues and how do they differ? |
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Definition
1.Skeletal muscle- strong, quick, discontinuous and voluntary contractions
2.Cardiac- Strong, quick and continuous involuntary contractions
3.Smooth- weak, slow and involuntary contractions |
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Term
| What is the difference in skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle in how they are made up |
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Definition
Skeletal- cells during development fuse to create fibres, so does not have individual cells. Fibres allows the contractions to be voluntary and strong.
Cardiac- cells are not fused, remain individual. Each cell is connected to each other by inter collated discs (gap junctions) which allows the cells to communicate fast, which allows the heart to contract at once.
smooth- moves by peristalsis in the gut. |
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Term
| What is the function of satellite cells in skeletal muscle? |
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Definition
| They are myoblasts that maintain in the tissue as satellite cells which are retain the ability to fuse with one another or with damaged muscle fibers to regenerate functional muscle fibres. However, the number of satellite cells are not able to compensate for a significant muscle loss or degeneration. |
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Term
What is skeletal muscle grouped into and what is the thin and thick portion made up of?
Describe the Perimysium, Endomysium and Epimysoim |
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Definition
It is composed of myofilaments, which are made up of thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments.
Endomysium- thin wrapping of connective tissue that surrounds each muscle fibre.
Perimysium- covers a grouping of muscle fibres, which is called a fasiculus, which is made up of connective tissue.
Epimysium- thick covering of connective tissue that covers the periphery of the muscle. |
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Term
| Cardiac muscle: How are the cells connected and why is this important? Where is the nuclei located in the cell? |
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Definition
Linear cell-to-cell attachment by intercalated discs, which results in the formation of cardiac muscle fibres. The intercalated discs allows the muscle to contract at once.
The nuclei are located centrally.
-contains endomysium (wrapping of connective tissue around the muscle fibres). |
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Term
Smooth muscle: What type of cells do they consist of? Where is the nucleus located? How do they communicate? What do they have similar to cardiac and skeletal and what is different?
What is the bouton en passant? |
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Definition
Made up of fusiform cells (long, spindle shaped)
Centrally located nucleus.
They contain gap junctions connecting the cells, and they have a endomysium which is similar to skeletal and cardiac muscle.
They don't have striations, which cardiac and skeletal have.
Bouton en passant- nerve terminals in the endomysium. |
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Term
Development of muscle tissue: What layer is it derived from? What are the segments it goes through?
What do myotomes, dermatomes, sclerotomes and mesodermal cells develop into? |
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Definition
The muscle tissues develop from mesoderm. This segments into somitomeres which then further segment into somites.
Myotomes form the skeletal muscle of trunk and limbs
Dermatome form the connective tissue and dermis of the skin
Sclerotome forms the vertebrae
Mesodermal cells form the cardiac and smooth muscle |
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Term
| what is a somite, what does it differentiate into and what does that give rise to? |
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Definition
| Somites are structures that differentiate into myotomes which is the source of all striated muscle |
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Term
| What does the CNS and PNS consist of? |
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Definition
CNS- brain and spinal cord
PNS- nerves (cranial, spinal and peripheral), specialized nerve endings and ganglia. |
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Term
| Describe the function of the somatic and autonomic nervous system |
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Definition
Somatic- provides sensory and motor innervation to all parts of the body (except viscera, smooth muscle and glands).
Autonomic- provides innervation to smooth muscle, heart and glands and receives sensory innervation from the viscera (pain and reflexes). Subdivided into: sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric. |
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Term
| Where are the cranial and spinal nerves located? |
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Definition
Cranial- located in the brain stem
Spinal- located in the spinal cord |
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Term
| What are the three things that nervous tissue is made up of? |
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Definition
1.Neurons (motor, sensory and interneurons)
2.Glia (CNS)
3.Schwann and satellite cells (PNS) |
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Term
| What is a neuron/soma/perikarya? What is a nissel? What are dendrites and what are axons? |
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Definition
Neurons- cell body
perikaryon- "around the nucleus"
dendrites are extensions of the cell body that receive information.
axons- extension of the neurons that actually make up the nerves and release information. |
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Term
| What is the difference between a neuron and nerve? |
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Definition
Neuron- the cell or soma
Nerves- made up of the axon of neurons |
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Term
| What are the three types of neurons? |
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Definition
1.Bipolar- two sets of dendrites
2.Multipolar- many sets of dendrites
3.Psuedounipolar- has two axons that split into two |
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Term
| What are the three types of neurons? |
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Definition
1.Bipolar- two sets of dendrites
2.Multipolar- many sets of dendrites
3.Psuedounipolar- has two axons that split into two |
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Term
| What are the two types of synapses? |
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Definition
1.Chemical- cell produces a protein and sends it to the next cell (acetylcholine, epinephrine, dopamine)
2.Electrical- have a gap junction between cells that allows for communication between them. Found in cardiomyocytes, and do not have a chemical involved. |
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Term
| Where are unmyelinated neurons located? |
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Definition
| they are located in the PNS |
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Term
| Define Perineum, Epineurium, Endoneurium |
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Definition
Perineum- connective tissue wrapping around fascicles in a nerve
Epineurium- the superficial connective tissue covering an entire nerve
Endoneurium- connective tissue wrapping around individual nerve axons. |
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Term
| what is the difference between axosomatic and axoaxonic synapses? |
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Definition
1.axosomatic or axodendritic- axon of one neuron interacts with the soma or dendrites
2.Axoaxonic- axon of one neuron interacts with another axon |
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Term
| What are dopaminergic neurons |
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Definition
| release dopamine through chemical synapses. this is related to parkinsons disease where their dopamine producing cells degenerate |
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Term
| Explain the 7 steps of the synapse |
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Definition
1.Presynaptic neuron depolarizes
2.Breif opening of Ca channels
3.Calcium influx promotes exocutosis of synaptic vesicles
4.Release of neurotransmitter
5.Neurotransmitter reacts with receptors
6.Promotes postsynaptic membrane depolarization
7.Membrane retrieval of coated vesicles with neurotransmitter |
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Term
| Glia (CNS): What are the four types of cells and what are their function? |
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Definition
1.Olgiodendrocytes- produce myelin
2.Astrocytes- metabolic support
3.Microglia- phagocytosis
4.Ependymal- lining of ventricles and central canal |
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Term
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Definition
| loss of myelin in CNS that involves the oligocendrocytes |
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Term
| Myelin shealth- where does it come from |
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Definition
| olgiodendrites provide myelination to axon of neurons, and they provide this to more than one neuron at a time. |
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Term
| What is the difference between grey and white matter |
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Definition
1.Grey matter- made up of neuronal bodies (somas)
2.White matter- made up of axons of neurons (covered by lots of myelin) |
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Term
| Glia (PNS): What two things is it made up of? |
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Definition
1.Schwann cells- myelinated and unmyelinated axons. Provide myelin to axons in PNS
2.Satelite cells- ganglia (sensory in creanial/spinal nerves or autonomic) |
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Term
In the PNS what cell produces myelin and how many neurons would it cover?
What are nodes of ranvier? |
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Definition
Schwann cells warp myelin around axons of neurons in PNS. 1 schwann cell for 1 axon.
node of ranvier- end of one schwann cell and beginning of another. This is important as it allows the action poteional to jump through the nodes of ran view which allows the conduction to continue. |
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Term
| Peripheral nerves- how are they put together? |
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Definition
| They contain many myelinated neurons that are bundled by connective tissue which provides vasculature to the nerves. |
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Term
| Explain the injury and repair of neurons |
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Definition
1.Injury= damage to the axon. Schwann cells will proliferate
2.Axon will regrow from schwann cells, muscle will atrophy but can regrow
3.Sometimes axon will not reform the previous connection |
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Term
| Spinal nerves- how are they arranged? |
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Definition
| They exit the spinal cord at different levels and classified by the region of the spine they exist at. They are arranged into different plexuses. |
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Term
| Where do the brachial plexus leave from? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the three main nerves of the upper limb? |
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Definition
| Ulnar nerve, medial nerve, and radial nerve |
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Term
| Explain the four steps to the reflex arc |
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Definition
1.Sensory stretch- tendon that connects bone to muscle will stretch the muscle
2.Sensory neuron (dorsal root ganglia) impulse goes into the spinal cord and impulse gets generated
3.Motor neurons will send their impulse down the axon
4.Muscle will contract
-has no interact with the brain nerves |
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Term
| What are the general 5 steps to the reflex arc |
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Definition
1.Sensory receptor
2.Sensory neuron
3.Integration centre
4.Motor neuron
5.Effector/result |
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Term
| Spinal cord: What are tracts, what are they made up of and what is the difference between motor and sensor tracts? |
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Definition
They contain motor and sensory tracts that run up and down the spinal cord which are made out of white matter.
Motor tracts- carries down the spinal cord
Sensory tracts- carries up the spinal cord |
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Term
| What are the four major sections of the brain and what do they consist of? |
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Definition
1.Cerebrum- large
2.Cerebellum- "little brain"
3.Diencephalon- thalamus and hypothalamus
4.Brain stem- midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata |
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Term
| What are the four different ventricles of the brain |
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Definition
1.Lateral- there are two, on the left and right sides of the brain
2.Mdibrain
3.Brain stem |
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Term
| What is the central canal |
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Definition
| blood vessel that feed into the spinal cord |
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Term
Blood brain barrier- what is its function?
What is an example of this in new generation of antihistamines? |
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Definition
allows exchange and protection between brain and blood.
New generation of antihistamines are not able to cross the blood brain barrier and therefore don't cause drowsiness. |
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Term
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Definition
| made up of regions that have different functions |
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Term
| What is the basal nuclei? |
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Definition
comprise multiple subcortical nuclei, of varied origin, in the brains of vertebrates, which are situated at the base of the forebrain. Basal ganglia nuclei are strongly interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and brainstem, as well as several other brain areas. The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions including: control of voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, routine behaviors or "habits" such as bruxism, eye movements, cognition[1] and emotion.
Contains the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globes |
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Term
| What is the function of the limbic system |
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Definition
| memory, emotions and olfaction |
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Term
| What is the function of diencephalen |
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Definition
thalamus- relay control that connects things to the cortex
hypothalamus- endocrine gland that controls a lot
epithalamus- where melatonin is stored, which is the regulator of circadian rhythms |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What is the function of the brain stem |
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Definition
| important for continuation of motor activate |
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Term
How many cranial nerves are there
What is the function of Oculomotor (III), Trochlear (IV), Abducens (VI), Trigeminal (V) and Vagus (X) nerves |
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Definition
Oculomotor- eyeball and eye lid movement
Trochlear- provides movement to the eyeball
Abducens- controls lateral rectus of the eye
Trigeminal- controls mouth movement
Vagus- digestive system |
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Term
| What are the four cells of the epidermis and what is their function |
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Definition
1)Keratinocytes- Produce the protein keratin
2)Melanocytes- Produce the pigment melanin
3)Langerhans- Participate in immune responses
4)Merkel- Sensation of touch |
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Term
| Explain the layers of the integumentary system |
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Definition
1.Epithelium
2.Basement membrane: Basal lamina (lamina and collagen), and then Reticular lamina (collagen by fibroblasts)
3.Connective tissue
4.Subcutaneous tissue |
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Term
| What are the four cells in bones and what is their function |
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Definition
1.Osteogenic cells- unspecialized cell that are derived from mesenchyme
2.Osteoblasts- bone building cells that secrete collage fibres and other organic compounds
3.Osteocytes- mature bone cells that are the main cells in bone tissue and maintain its daily metabolism
4.Osteoclasts- huge cells derived from the fusion of as many as 50 monocytes |
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Term
| Compact bone: Explain the osteon/haversian system |
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Definition
The osteion/haversian system is the basic structural unit of compact bone. There is a central canal, and branching off lacunae which contain osteocytes, and then branching from all lacunae are canaliculi.
The areas between the neighbouring osteons contain interstitial lamellae. |
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Term
| Explain the internal structures of spongy tissue |
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Definition
| Spongy bone does not contain osteon, it consists of lamellae that are that are arranged in thin columns of bone called trabecular which are filled with bone marrow. Within each trabecula are osteocytes that lie in lacunae, and coming from the lacunae are canaliculi. |
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Term
| What is the general difference between compact and spongy bone? |
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Definition
| The spongy bone makes the bones more light weight and they also have bone marrow which produce blood cells. |
|
|
Term
| What are the three different types of joints and where do they occur? |
|
Definition
Fibrous- syntrthroses in which the neighboring bones are joined together by a solid mass of dense irregular connective tissue. These occur in skull, roots of teeth and their sockets and between the ulna and radius and tibia and fibula.
Cartilaginous- syntharthrosis which is connected by a solid connective tissue that allows little or no movement.
These can be found in the pubic symphysis (between the hip bones), the manubrium (sternum) and vertebral columns.
Synovial- presence of a synovial cavity that is surrounded by a connective tissue capsule that connects the articulating bones. The synovial cavity is covered by a layer of articular cartilage and has synovial fluid. These are found in the knees and elbows. |
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Term
|
Definition
1.Biceps brachii
2.Brachialis
3.Brachioradialis |
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Term
|
Definition
1.Triceps brachii
2.Anconeus |
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Term
|
Definition
Hamstrings
1.Biceps femoris
2.Semitendinosus
3.Semimembraneous |
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Term
|
Definition
Quadriceps
1.rectus femoris
2.vastus femoris
3.vastus medialis
4.vastus intermedius
5.Sartorius |
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Term
| Describe the flow of arteries to the U.limb |
|
Definition
Arch of aorta
Braciocephalix trunk
Right Subclavian
Right Axillary
Right Brachial
Right Radial- right superficial palmar arch- right common palmar digital- right proper palmar digital
Right Ulnar- Right deep palmer arch- right palmar metacarpal |
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Term
| Describe the flow of arteries to the L.limb |
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Definition
Abdominal aorta
Right common iliac
Right external iliac
Right femoral
Right popliteal
Right Anterior tibial- Right dorsal artery of foot- Right arcuate- right dorsal metatarsal- right dorsal digital
Right posterior tibial- right fibular- right medial plantar
RIght dorsal artery feeds into the right lateral plantar, right plantar arch, right plantar metatarsal and right plantar digital |
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Term
| Describe the general flow of veins from the U. limbs |
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Definition
| Cephalic, Basilic, Median Antebrachial veins, radial veins and ulnar veins all feed into the Brachial veins, which feed into the Axillary veins and then finally feed into the Subclavian veins. |
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Term
| What are the superficial and deep veins of the upper limbs? |
|
Definition
Superficial- Cephalic, Basilic and Median Antebrachial veins
Deep- Radial, Ulnar, Brachial, Axillary and Subclavian. |
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Term
| Explain the general flow of veins from the L. limb |
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Definition
| The great saphenous veins, small saphenous veins, posterior tibial veins, and anterior tibial veins all feed into the popliteal veins and then the femoral veins. |
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Term
| Describe the composition of blood |
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Definition
| It is made up of 45% formed elements and 55% blood plasma. 99% of formed elements are RBC, and 1% are WBC. |
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|
Term
| What are the main cells of blood? |
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Definition
| RBCS, WBCS (neutrophils, eosionphils, basophils, T and B cells and monocytes), Platelets. |
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Term
| Explain the parts of the cervical plexus, brachial plexus, lumbar plexus, sacral plexus |
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Definition
Cervical- C1-C4 (head and neck)
Brachial- C5-C8, T1 (chest, shoulder, arms and hands)
Lumbar- L1-L4 (abdomin, groin, thighs, knees and calves)
Sacral- L4-S4 (pelvis, buttocks, genitals, thighs, calves and feet) |
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Term
| Explain the make up of the different nerves of the spinal cord |
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Definition
Cervical nerves (8)
Thoracic nerves (12)
Lumbar nerves (5)
Sacral nerves (5)
Coccygeal nerves (1) |
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|
Term
Describe the three layers of BV and what they consist of
Explain the flow of BV through the body |
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Definition
1.Tunica INterna: innermost layer and is simple squamous epithelium, called endothelium.
2.Contains mostly smooth muscle with some elastic fibres. Has the greatest variation amoung BV.
3.Tunica Externa- consists of elastic and collagenous fibres
Arteries- Arterioles- Capillaries- Venules- Veins |
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Term
| How many different bones are there in the adult skeleton and what are the 5 different types of bones |
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Definition
There is 206
long bones- humerus
Short bones- wrist, trapezoid
flat bones- sternum, skull
Irreglar bones- vertebra
Sesamoid bone- patella |
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Term
| Explain the four different types of cells of bones |
|
Definition
1.Osteogenic cells- unspecialized stem cells derived from mesenchyme
2.Osteoblasts- synthesize and secrete collage fibres and other organic materials
3.Osteocytes- mature bone cells that perform daily metabolic activities
4.Osteoclasts- huge cells derived from the fusion of as many as 50 monocytes |
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Term
| Steps in Intramembraneous ossification |
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Definition
-Is the simpler of the two
1.Development of the ossification centre
2.Calcification
3.Formation of trabexulae
4.Development of periosteum |
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Term
| Describe the steps of endochondral ossification |
|
Definition
1.Development of cartilage model
2.Growth of the cartilage model
3.Development of the primary ossification model
4.Development of medullary (marrow) cavity
5.Development of the secondary ossification centres
6.Formation of articular cartilage and the epiphyseal plate |
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|
Term
| Describe the difference between compound, comminuted, greenstick, impacted, pot's, and collie's fractures |
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Definition
Compound-broken ends of bones protrude through the skin
Communited fracture- bone is splintered, crushed, or broken into pieces at the site of impact.
Greenstick- partial fracture in which one side of the bone is broken and the other side bends.
Impacted fracture- one end of the fractured bone is forcefully driven into the interior of the other
Pott's- a fracture of the distal end of the lateral leg bone, with serious injury of the distal trivial articulation
Colles- fracture of the distal end of the lateral forearm bone (radius) in which the distal fragment is displaced posteriorly. |
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Term
| What are the three major things that affect bone growth |
|
Definition
1.minerals- calcium and phosphorus
2.Vitamins- vit A and C
3.Hormones- IGF's (insulin like growth factor) |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between sprain and a strain |
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Definition
Sprain- twisting of a joint that stretches or tears its ligaments but does not dislocated the bone.
Strain- stretched or partially torn muscle |
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Term
|
Definition
| Skeletal muscle is a spearate organ composed of hundreds to thousands of skeletal muscle cells, also called muscle fibres |
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Term
| What is the difference between hypertrophy and hyperplasia |
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Definition
Hypertrophy= enlargement of existing muscle fibres
Hyperplasia= an increase in the number of fibers |
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Term
| What is the sacroplasma and what does it contain to make it red? |
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Definition
Sacrolemma is the plasma membrane of the muscle fibers
It contains myoglobin which makes it red |
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|
Term
| What are the contractile elements of skeletal muscle? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between muscle atrophy and hypertrophy |
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Definition
atrophy is wasting away of muscle
hypertrophy is an increase in the size of muscle fibers |
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of myofibril proteins? |
|
Definition
1.contractile proteins
2.regulatory proteins
3.structural proteins |
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|
Term
What is myosin and what is it constituents
what do thin filaments consist of |
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Definition
Myosin functions as the motor protein in all three types of muscle tissue, consist of thin and thick filaments
Thin filaments extend from the anchoring points within the Z disc, and their main component in actin. Also contains tropomyosin and troponin. |
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Term
|
Definition
| a somatic motor neuron plus all the skeletal muscle fibres it innervates, which can be as many as 150 |
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Term
| What is the difference between isotonic and isometric contractions |
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Definition
isotonic- the tension developed from muscle white the muscle changes length
isometric- tension generated in muscle is not enough to cause the muscle to change length |
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Term
| How are muscle fibres connected to one another |
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Definition
| They are connected by inter collated discs which contain demosomes (hold the fibres together) and gap junctions (allow them to communicate). |
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Term
| What are the three functions of blood |
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Definition
| Transportation, regulation (pH and temperature), Protection (protects against excess loss from the cardiovascular system). |
|
|
Term
| Define hematocrit, hemopoiesis, and red bone marrow and where is it present |
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Definition
The percentage of total blood volume occupied by RBCs
Homeopiosis is the process by which formed elements of blood develop
red bone marrow- is a highly vascularized connective tissue located in the microscopic spaces between traveulae of spongy bone tissue. As a baby all bone marrow is red, but as you age most of it gets replaced by yellow bone marrow |
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Term
Explain the composition of a RBC with globulin and heme
What is the process by which RBCs are made and what cells are they made out of?
What are RBCs missing as a organelle |
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Definition
RBC is made up of a protein called globulin which contains four nonprotein pigments called heme that bind to oxygen.
Erythhropoiesis is the production of RBCs which starts in the red bone marrow by pro erythroblasts.
RBCs do not have a nucleus |
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Term
| What is the function of neutrophils, macrophages, monocytes, eosionophils, and lymphocytes |
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Definition
neutrophils and macrophages are active in phagocytosis
monocytes differentiate into macrophages at the site of infections/injury
basophils will release histamine and serotonin which intensify the inflammatory reaction and are involved in allergic reactions.
eosionphils release enzymes, such s histaminease, that combat the effects of histamine and other mediators of inflammatory or allergic reactions. Also involved in parasitic infections.
Lymphocytes consist of T cells, B cells and NK cells (natural killer). |
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Term
| Define the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system and what they are composed of |
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Definition
It is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system is composed of all the nervous structures outside the CNS, such as the cranial nerves sand their branches, ganglia, enteric plexuses and sensory receptors. |
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|
Term
How many pairs of cranial nerves and spinal nerves are there?
Define ganglia, enteric plexuses, and sensory receptors |
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Definition
There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves which emerge from the base of the brain and 31 pairs of spinal nerves which emerge from the spinal cord.
Ganglia are small masses of nervous tissue consisting primarily of neuron cell bodies that are located outside the brain and spinal cord.
Enteric plexuses are extensive networks of neurons that regulate organs of the gastrointestinal tract.
Sensory receptors are structures that monitor changes in the internal and external environment. |
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Term
| Describe the difference between sensory function, integrative function and motor function |
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Definition
Sensory function: sensory receptors that detect internal and external stimuli with neurons called sensory neurons. They carry this information into the brain and spinal cord through cranial and spinal nerves.
Integrative function is when the nervous system integrates sensory information by analyzing and storing some of it and by making decisions for appropriate responses. Many of the neurons that participate in integration are interneurons.
Motor function is when the nervous system elicits a response such as muscular contraction or glandular secretion. This is composed of motor/efferent neurons. |
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Term
| Describe the difference between the Somatic and Autonomical nervous system of the PNS |
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Definition
Somatic consists of sensory neurons that convey information from sensory receptors in the skin, skeletal muscles, joint and for special senses to the CNS.
Autonomic has sensory neurons and motor nuerons taht convey information from the CNS to the smooth muscle and cause muscle to contracts and glands to secrete. The two major parts of the ANS is the sympathetic (increase) and parasympathetic (decrease). |
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Term
| Neurons: What are they capable of, what is the cell body, what is a nerve fibre and what are the two different types, |
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Definition
Neurons or nerve cells are cells that posses electrical excitability.
Cell body or perikaryon is part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and other organelles. Neurons contain nissel bodies that store the RER.
Nerve fibre is a neuronal process that can either be multiple dendrites or a single axon. Dendrites receives information and axons transmit it. |
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Term
| Define a synapse, presynaptic neuron and postsynaptic cell |
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Definition
Synapse- site of communication between two neurons or between a neuron and an effects cell
Presynaptic neuron- a nerve cell that carries a nerve impulse towards a synapse
Postsynaptic cell- nerve cell or effector that carries a nerve impulse away from a synapse |
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Term
| Describe the general function of the following neurotransmitters: |
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Definition
ACetylcholine- releases by PNS neurons that is excitatory at neuromuscular junctions
GABA and Glycine- important inhibitory neurotransmitters
Norepinephrine- plays a role in arousal, dreaming and regulation mood.
Dopamine- active during emotional responses, addictive behaviours, and pleasurable experiences.
Serotonin- involve in sensory perception, temperature regulation, control of moot, appetite and the onset of sleep.
Endorphins- neuropeptides that serve as the body's natural painkillers. |
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Term
| What is the difference between Multipolar neurons, Bipolar neurons, and Unipolar neurons |
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Definition
Multipolar- Contain several dendrites and one axon
Bipolar- have one main dendrite and one axon
Unipolar- axon and dendrite fuse into a single process that divided into two branches a short distance from the cell body. |
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Term
| Neurglia of the CNS: What is the function of Astrocytes, Oligodendrocytes, Microglia, and Ependymal cells |
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Definition
Astrocytes- they contain microfilaments that provide support to neurons, provide permeability to the endothelium, help maintain the appropriate chemical environment for the generation of nerve impulses, play a role in learned and memory by influencing the formation of neural synapses.
Olgiodendrites- process are responsible for forming and maintaining the myelin sheath around CNS axons.
Microglia- originate in red bone marrow and migrate to the nervous tissue, function as phagocytes.
Ependymal cells- line the ventricles of the brian and spinal cord, which will produce, monitor and assist in the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid. |
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Term
| What is the function of the following neuroglia in the PNS: schwann cells, satellite cells |
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Definition
Schwann cells- neuromyelinators that encircle PNS axons, and they form the myeline stealth around axons. A single olgiodendrite myelinates several axons but a but schwann cell can enclose as many as 20 or more unmyelinated axons.
Satellite cell- regular the exchange of materials between neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid. |
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Term
| Define myelin shealth, nodes of ranvier, and demyelination |
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Definition
Myelin sheath- axons that are surrounded by multi layer lipid and protein sheaths
Nodes of ranvier- gaps in the myelin stealth that appear at internals.
Demyelination- loss or destruction of myelin sheaths around axons that can result from disease such as Tay sacs, or MS. |
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Term
| What is the difference between grey and white matter |
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Definition
Grey- contains neuronal cell bodes, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, axon terminals and neuroglia.
White- aggregations of myelinated and unmyelinated axons of many neurons, the whitish colour of myelin is what give it its colour. |
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Term
| What are meninges, what are the three different types and what is the spinal and cranial meninges? |
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Definition
Meninges are dense connective tissue that encircle the spinal cord and brain. They consist of dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia matter.
The spinal meninges wrap around the spinal cord and the cranial wrap around the brain. |
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Term
| What is the difference between sensory (ascending) tracts and motor (descending) tracts |
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Definition
| Sensory consist of axons that conduct nerve impulses from the spinal cord toward the brain. Tracts consisting of axons that carry nerve impulses away from the brain down the spinal cord are called motor (descending) tracts. |
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Term
| Spinal nerves: what are they, how many are there and what groups do they make up? |
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Definition
They are the nerves that branch from them are part of the peripheral nervous system. They connect the CNS to sensory receptors, muscles and glands in all parts of the body. There are 31 paris of spinal nerves.
Cervical nerves- 8 pairs from C1- C8
Thoracis nerves- 12 pairs from T1-T12
Lumbar nerves- 5 pairs from L1-L5
Sacral nerves- 5 pairs from S1-S5
Coccygeal nerves- 1 pair |
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Term
| Explain what a plexus is and where they occur, which nerves do not occur like this? |
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Definition
Axons that first join to make networks before going to structure they will innervate, which are called plexuses.
They occur in the cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal plexuses.
The thoracic nerves are the only nerves that go directly structures they supply in the inter coastal muscles. These are called the inter coastal or thoracic nerves. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| they consist of C1-C4 and they innervate skin, muscles of the head, neck and superior part of the shoulders and chest. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| They consist of C5-C8 and T1 which supply the shoulders and upper limbs. They consist of the axillary nerve, musculocutaneous nerve, median nerve, radial nerve, and ulnar nerve. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| L1- L4 and they supply the anterolateral abdominal wall, external genitals and part of the lower limbs. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Consist of L4-L5 and S1-S4. They supply the buttocks, perineum and lower limbs. |
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Term
|
Definition
The skin over the entire body is up plied by somatic sensory neurons that carry nerve impulses from the skin into the spinal cord and brain stem.
Each spinal nerve contains sensory neurons that serve a specific perceptible segment of the body.
The area of the skin that provides sensory input to the CNS viz one pair of spinal nevers is called a dermatome. |
|
|
Term
| Define nerve fibre, endoneurium, perineurium, fasciuli, and epineruium. |
|
Definition
Nerve fibre- the axon and its associated glial cells
Endoneurium- mesh of collagen fibres, fibroblasts, and macrophages that surrounds nerve fibres.
Perineurium- a thicker stealth of connective tissue that packages groups of never fibres together into fascicle.
Epinerurium- Outer connective sheath that boundless all the fasiculi together |
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|
Term
| What is the difference between the function of grey and white matter |
|
Definition
Grey matter- receives and integrates incoming and outgoing information
White matter- highways for nerve impulse propagations |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between a spinal reflex and cranial reflex |
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Definition
Spinal reflex- integration takes place in the spinal cord grey matter
cranial reflex- integration takes place in the brain grey matter |
|
|
Term
| Explain the 5 steps of the patellar reflex (knee) |
|
Definition
1.Sensory receptor- distal end of a sensory neuron serves as a sensory receptor
2.Sensory neuron- nerve impulses conduct form the sensory receptor along the axon of a sensory neuron to its axon terminals, whciha re located in the CNS grey matter.
3.Integrating centre- oen or more regions of grey matter in the CNS acts as an integrating centre.
4.Motor neuron- impulses triggered by the integrating centre pass out of the spinal cord along a motor neuron to the part of the body that will respond.
5.Effector- part of the body the responds to the motor nerve impulse, such as a muscle or gland, is the effector. |
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|
Term
| What are the four major areas of the brain? |
|
Definition
1.Brain stem- consists ofmedulla onlongata, pons and midbrain
2.Cerebellum
3.Dicencephalon- consist of the thalamus, hypothalamus and epithalamus
4.Cerebrum- largest part of the brain |
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Term
| Cranial meninges- what are the three layers |
|
Definition
| The outer durmater, the middle arachnoid mater and inner pia mater. |
|
|
Term
| Where are the four ventricles located in the brain? |
|
Definition
1.Two lateral ventricles
2.Along the midline
3.Lies between the brain stem and cerebellum |
|
|
Term
| What are the three function of the cerebral spinal fluid? |
|
Definition
1.Mechaincal protection- shock absorbing for spinal cord and brain
2.Chemical protection- Provides an optimal environment for accurate neuronal signalling neurons. |
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|
Term
Medulla oblongata- What is its functions
What are the five pairs of nerves associated with the medulla |
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Definition
It contains the cardiovascular centre, medullary rhythmicity area, and controls reflexs for vomiting, counting and sneezing. There is also nuclei associated with sensations of touch, conscious proprioception, pressure and vibration.
1.Vestibulocochlear- receive sensory input from and provide motor output to the cochlea of the internal ear biz the cochlear branches of the vestibularocohlear nerves.
2.Glossopharyngeal nerve- sensory and motor impulses related to tastes, swallowing, and salivation
3.Vagus- motor impulses to the pharynx and larynx and many thoracic and abdominal viscera via the nerves
4.ACcessory nerves- impulses that control swallowing via the cranial portion of the accessory nerve
5.Hypoglossal- control tongue movement during speech and swallowing |
|
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Term
| Pons- what is its function and what are the 4 nerves |
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Definition
Controls breathing
1.Trigeminal- receives sensory impulses for somatic from the head and face and provide motor impulses that govern chewing
2.Abducens- motor impulses that control eyeball movement
3.Facial nerves- receive sensory information for taste and provide motor impulses to regulate secretion of saliva and tears and contraction of muscles of facial expressions
4.Vestibularocular- sensory impulses from and provide motor impulses to the vestibular apparatus |
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Term
| Midbrain: what are its functions and what two nerves is it associated with? |
|
Definition
Control reflexes for visual activities, movement of eyes, head and necks, and auditory pathways.
It is associated with
1.Oculomotor- control movements of the eyeball
2.Trochlear- control movements of the eyeball |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| The primary function is to evaluate how well movements are being carried out. It also regulates posture and balance, and may also have non motor functions such as cognition and language processing. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
major relay station for most sensory impulses that reach the primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex from the spinal cord, brain stan and midbrain.
Contributes to motor functions by transmitting information from the cerebellum and basal ganglia to the primary motor area of the cerebral cortex. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 6 functions of the hypothalamus |
|
Definition
Overall it controls the bodies homeostasis
1.COntrol of the ANS- controls and integrates activities of the ANS which regulates contraction of smooth and cardiac muscle and secretion of glands.
2.Production of hormones-
3.Regulation of emotional and behavioural patterns
4.Regulation of eating and drinking- through arcuate and paracetrivular nuclei.
5.Control of body temperature
6.Regulation of circadian rhythms and states of consciousness |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Consists of the pineal gland and habenular nuclei.
Pineal gland produces melatonin which is produced during darkness and promotes sleepiness.
Habenular nuclei- involved in olfaction |
|
|
Term
| What are the two things of the limbic system and what are their functions |
|
Definition
| It controls range of emotions, olfaction and memory. |
|
|
Term
| Explain the 5 sensory areas of the cerebral cortex |
|
Definition
1.Primary somatosensory sensory
2.Primary visual area
3.Primary auditory area
4.Primary gustatory area
5.Primary olfactory area |
|
|
Term
| Explain the 2 motor areas of the cerebral cortex |
|
Definition
1.Primary motor area
2.Brocas's speech area |
|
|
Term
| Explain the 8 association areas of the cerebral cortex |
|
Definition
1.Somatosensory association-
2.Prefrontal cortex
3.Visual assocaited
4.Auditory
5.Wernickes areas- translate thoughts
6.Common integrative area-
7.Premotor area
8.frontal eye field |
|
|
Term
| Hemispheric laterialization |
|
Definition
| Physiological differences exist between two hemispheres, and function asymmetry is termed hemispheric lateralization |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nerve impulses generated by neurons are recorded onto a EEG |
|
|
Term
| Olfactory nerve (cranial) |
|
Definition
| conduct nerve impulses for olfaction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| COntaons axons that conduct nerve impulses for vision |
|
|
Term
| Oculomotor nerve (cranial) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Trochlear nerve (cranial nerve) |
|
Definition
| motor cranial nerve, movement of the eyeball |
|
|
Term
| Trigeminal nerve (cranial) |
|
Definition
| consists of ophthalmic never, maxillary, and mandibular nerve |
|
|
Term
| Abducens nerve (cranial nerve) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| propioceptors of muscles of the face and scalp and from skin in the ear |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
vestibular- balance
cohlear- hearing |
|
|
Term
| Glossopharynheal nerve (cranial) |
|
Definition
| tastebuds and for swallowing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| distributed through the head and neck, thorax and abdomen. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| distributed through the head and neck, thorax and abdomen. |
|
|
Term
| Accessory nerves (cranial) |
|
Definition
| part of the vagus nerve. Conveys motor impulses to the sternocleidomastoid and trapexius muscles to coordinate head moevemnst. |
|
|
Term
| Hypoglossal nerve (cranial) |
|
Definition
| motor cranial nerve for speech and swallowing |
|
|
Term
| Where does the nervous system develop from? |
|
Definition
| The ectoderm which develops into the neural plate. |
|
|
Term
| Where does the nervous system develop from? |
|
Definition
| The ectoderm which develops into the neural plate. |
|
|
Term
| What are the three divisions of of the autonomic |
|
Definition
| Sympathetic, Parasympathetic, and Enteric |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between CNS and PNS |
|
Definition
CNS- brain and spinal cord
PNS- nerves (cranial, spinal and peripheral), specialized nerve endings and ganglia |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between somatic and autonomic |
|
Definition
Somatic- provides sensory and motor innervation to all parts of the body (except visceral, smooth muscle and glands)
Autonomic- provides innervation to smooth muscle, heart and glands and receives sensory innervation from the viscera (pain and reflexes). Subdivided into sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric. |
|
|
Term
| Sympathetic: explain the release of ACh, and release of noreepinphrine from adrenal medulla. |
|
Definition
Axon ends and connects with ganglion to release ACH, and then sympathetic nerve travels to the organ it will innervate.
Also will innervate the adrenal medulla of chromafin cells, that will release norepinephrine to cause vasocontristion or dilation. |
|
|
Term
| Where are autonomic plexuses distributed around the body? |
|
Definition
| They are distributes around various visceral organs. |
|
|
Term
| Somatic Sensory: What are the two pathways |
|
Definition
1.Posterior coloumn
2.Antereolateral coloumn |
|
|
Term
| Somatic motor cortex: What parts of the body contain the most area of the cortex and why |
|
Definition
| The face (especially lips) and hands are largely represented on the cortex because the most intricate movements that we do is through these parts. |
|
|
Term
| Olfaction: What does it have and what cranial nerve is it innervated through? |
|
Definition
| Includes cranial olfactory nerve. Modified neural epithelial cells will make the olfactory nerve with their axons and travel to the primary olfactory part of the cortex. |
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Term
| Gustatory: What does the tongue contain and what three cranial nerves are involved? |
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Definition
| The tongue has various pill, and uses three cranial nerves (vagus, glossopheal and facial), which all get sent to the primary gustatory cortex. |
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Term
| Vision: what are the three cells of the eye, and what do they connect to? What produces the ophthalmic nerve? |
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Definition
Retinas had first (rods and cones), second (bipolar cells) which then connect to retinal ganglia cells. Rods and Cones are 1st to see light, and then send it to bipolar cells.
The axons of the ganglia cells will make the ophthalmic nerve, which will end in the primary visual area. |
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Term
| Hearing and Equilibrium: Where are the located? What does the middle ear contain? What does the cochlear have for hearing? What cranial nerve is it associated with? |
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Definition
Hearing and equilibrium are both located in the inner ear. The middle ear contains the three ossicles that transmit sound.
Inner ear contain cochlea that is semicircular canals, which have hair cells that tells us where our body is and then send it to the brain. Cochlear has hairs specific for hearing.
The cranial nerve associated with hearing and equilibrium is the vestibular cochlear never (cranial number 8). |
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Term
| What is the function of the endocrine system? How do hormones work |
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Definition
-produces hormones that go directly to the blood stream
-for each hormone there is a particular receptor for each hormone that are one particular cell, that allows it to be specialized. |
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Term
| What is the function of the pineal gland? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the function of the hypothalamus? How are pituitary and hypothalamus regulated? |
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Definition
| Regulates the pituitary by releasing releasing hormones. Pituitary and hypothalamus are regulated by negative feedback. |
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Term
| Posterior pituitary and anterior pituitary hormones |
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Definition
Posterior pituitary- releases vasopressin (antidiruetic hormone) and oxytocin (uterus relaxant)
Anterior pituitary- releases hGH (human godotrophin hormone), TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone), FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), LH (lutienzing hormone), PRL (prolactin), ACTH (adrenalcorticoid hormone), MSH (melanocyte-stimulating hormone)
LH= lutinizing hormone= ovulation in ovaries and promootes leydig cells in testes to secrete testosterone.
FSH= Stimulates ovaries and testes |
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Term
Thyroid gland- what is it stimulated by and what does it release?
What are the functions of T3/T4 and calcitonin?
How many parathyroid glands are there? |
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Definition
Thyroid gland gets stimulated by TSH and produces T3/T4 and calcitonin which is produced by C-cells.
Clacitionin regulates calcium in the body and T3/T4 regulates metabolism in the body.
There are 4 parathyroid glands. |
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Term
| Adrenal gland- What are the three layers of the cortex? |
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Definition
1.Adrenal glomerulus- secretes mineral corticosteriods (aldosterone)
2.Zona Fasculitulata- produces cortisol, glucocorticoids, steriods, glycogen storage in liver
3.Zona Reticularis- Secretes androgens |
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Term
| Pancreas- What are its two parts? |
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Definition
| It has the exocrine part (secretes enzymes to GI) and an endocrine part (releases insulin) |
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Term
| Explain the flow of blood through the heart |
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Definition
1.Superior vena vava (upper part of the body) and inferior vena cava (lower part of the body) bring blood to the right atrium. Also collects blood from the heart itself.
2.Right ventrciel
3.Pulmonary vein to the lung
4.Returns to the left atrium
5.Left ventricle
6.Distributed to the rest of the body through the aorta. |
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Term
| What are the electrical cells of the heart? What is the flow of electrical activity in the heart? What is an ECG? |
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Definition
Purkinje cells- make sure the contractions of the different part of the heart are occurring in the correct order.
An ECG is the measure of electrical activity in the heart.
Electrical activity flow;
1)SA node (pacemaker of the heart), where the electrical signal begins.
2.AV node
3.Bundle of HIS |
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Term
| Cardiac muscle: how are they connected? |
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Definition
cardiac muscle is not striated and the cells are not fused.
They communicate through inter collated discs (which can only be seen by TEM). Also have adhesive junctions and demosomes that connect the cells. The gap junctions are what allow the information to be spread from cell to cell. |
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Term
| Purjinke fibres- what ar ether and what do they control? |
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Definition
| They are modified cardiomyocytes with lots of collagen and fibre that allows electrical signals to be transmitted. |
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Term
| What does the para and sympathetic innervation control in the heart? |
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Definition
| They control the heart rate and the strength of the heart rate. |
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Term
| Explain the function of the adhesive junctions, desmonsomes, and gap junctions |
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Definition
Adhesive junctions- anchorage of the cells
Desmosomes- binding of the cells
Gap junctions- ionic continuity, functional syncytium. |
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Term
Cardiac conducting system
Where are the parasympathetic and sympathetic endings located? |
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Definition
Specialized cardiac muscle cells that are the AV and SA node, and Purkinje fibres.
They are located in the nodes. |
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Term
| What are the four valves of the heart? |
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Definition
Mitral valve (bicuspid)- lies between the left ventricle and atria
Atriventricular (tricuspid)- lies between the right ventricle and atria
Aortia valves- lies between the left ventricle and aortal
Pulmonary valves- lies between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery |
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Term
| What are the three circulations |
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Definition
| Pulmonary, systemic and coronary |
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Term
| What three arteries empty into the right atrium? |
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Definition
| The coronary sinus, superior and inferior vena cava |
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Term
| What three arteries empty into the right atrium? |
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Definition
| The coronary sinus, superior and inferior vena cava |
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Term
What are the layers of the medium macular arteries?
What are the vasculature and nervous supply to BV this size? |
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Definition
1.Tunica interna- endothelial and then internal elastic lamina
2.Tunica media- smooth muscle layers (40 in this artery)
3.External elastic lamina- consists of tunica adventitia is the collagen connective tissue
Vasa vasorum- is the blood supply to the arteries
Nervi vasorium- nervous supply to the arteries |
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Term
| Layers of Large elastic arteries |
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Definition
1.Tunica interna-contains an internal elastic lamina
2.Tunica media- different from the medium because it has a lot of layers of elastic
3.Tunica externa |
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Term
| Layers of Large elastic arteries |
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Definition
1.Tunica interna-contains an internal elastic lamina
2.Tunica media- different from the medium because it has a lot of layers of elastic
3.Tunica externa |
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Term
| 6 functions of the endothelial |
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Definition
1.Permeability- barrier for selective molecules (triglycerides, cholesterol)
2.Antithrombogenic- barrier, coagulation
3.Blood flow- resistance modulator for angiotensis I and II
4.Immune response- vas active factors (histamine)
5.Hormonal- producer of hormones (growth factors)
6.Lipoproteins- modifier (athlersclerotic plaques) |
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Term
| How many layers of smooth muscle do small arteries and arterioles have? |
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Definition
Small arteries have 8-10 layers
Arterioles have 1-2 layers |
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Term
| Capillaries- what do they have in their tissues? what are the two different types of capillaries? |
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Definition
Capillaries can only be seen by TEM because they are so small.
Capillaries have epithelial tissue, but have no smooth muscle.
1.Continuous capillaries- present in muscle with endothelial that has no holes.
2.Fenestrated- present in kidneys where the endothelial has holes. |
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Term
| What are the four different types of microcirculation? |
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Definition
1.Usual- arterial and venule side connected by one continuous capillary with pre capillary sphincter.
2.AV shunt- capillary continuous from arteriole to venule where there is no sphincter
3.Glomerular- many capillary loops that produces urine in kidney.
4.Sinusoids- found in liver, gets the venous blood from the gut to receive everything we ate, goes through sinusoid capillary, gets taken care of hemaptocytes, and then gets sent back through the portal system. |
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Term
| Veins: Where are the three different sizes of veins located? |
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Definition
Large- subclaven and venae cava
Medium- legs
Small- venule |
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Term
| How are layers of the veins different from arteries? |
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Definition
The media is thin and the adventitia layer is the thicker layer (thicker than in arteries).
Veins also have valves that help bring the blood back up to the upper body. |
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Term
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Definition
| Venosystem collects blood form the GI, all blood will end up in the portal system which is why the liver will receive the venous blood from the GI. They blood goes into inferior vena cava and then back to the heart. |
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Term
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Definition
| Venosystem collects blood form the GI, all blood will end up in the portal system which is why the liver will receive the venous blood from the GI. They blood goes into inferior vena cava and then back to the heart. |
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Term
| Explain what blood is made up of |
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Definition
1.Blood plasma (55%)- 91.5% water and 7% proteins (albumins, globulins, fibrinogen, all others), and 1.5% of other solutes.
2.Formed elements (45%)- made up of platelets, white blood cells (neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosionophils, and basophils), and red blood cells. |
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Term
| What are the 4 lymphatic organs? |
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Definition
1.Lymphoid nodules- accumulation of white blood cells through the body, and diffuse lymphocytes found in tonsils, Peyer's patches of the ileum, and vermiform appendix.
2.Thymus- where the T cells are located
3.Lymph nodes- generates cells according to the bodies need (lymphatic)
4.Spleen- generates cells according to bodies need (blood) |
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Term
Explain the function of lymph nodes and the different parts
What does the medullary cord and sinus contain? |
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Definition
Distributed all over the body that serve to filter lymph. Receives lymph through afferent vessels, filters through sinuses and then exits through efferent valves.
Lymph nodes will determine if there are antigens then produce B cells to make plasmid cells then to make antibodies.
1.Capsule- covering of the lymph node
2.Nodule- contains the B and T cells
3.Sinuses- for taking the lymph into and out of the lymph node
4.Trabeculae- layers of connective tissue
The medullary cord contains plasma cells and lymphocytes, and the medullar sinus contains macrophages and reticular cell. |
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Term
| Spleen: What is its function, and what is the trabeculae, white pulp and red pulp? |
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Definition
Does the same thing as lymph nodes but filters the blood and not the lymph.
Blood enters the spleen through the splenic artery, which will be covers by PALS (peripheral arterial lymphocyte Sheath) that have many T cells that monitor blood.
Also has germinative centre that can product the T and B cells (nodule in the spleen is the same as the nodule in the lymph node, to make B cells).
Spleen also destructs RBCs, has a structure to prevent RBCs to not go through.
Trabeculae are fibrous bands in the spleen. Red pulp is made up of platelets, RBCs, and white pulp is made up of lymphocytes. The white pulp contains the germinative layer which produces B cells. |
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Term
| What is lymphatic tissue and what are its three functions? |
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Definition
IT is a specialized form of reticular connective tissue.
1.Drains excess interstitial fluid
2.Transports dietary lipids
3.Carries out immune responses |
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Term
| What is the overall function of T cells and B cells? |
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Definition
T cells- destroy intruders by causing them to rupture or release cytotoxic substances.
B-cells- differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibodies. |
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Term
Explain the general flow of lymph
What are lymph nodes? |
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Definition
1.Lymphatic capillaries
2.Lymphastic vessels
3.Lymph nodes
Lymph nodes are encapsulated masses of T and B cells |
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Term
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Definition
| located in the smell intestine, specialized lymphatic capillaries called lacteals carry dietary lipids into lymphatic vessels and ultimately to the blood. |
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Term
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Definition
| As lymphatic vessels exit lymph nodes in a particular region of the body, they unit to form lymph nodes. |
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Term
| What are the two ways the body maintains the flow of lymph? |
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Definition
1.Skeletal muscle pump
2.Respiratory pump |
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Term
| Define primary lymphatic organs and what they consist of |
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Definition
| Sites where stem cells divide and become immunocompetent, that is, capable of mounting an immune response. The primary lymphatic organs are the red bone marrow and the thymus |
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Term
| Thymus: What is the capsule, trabeculae, cortex, and medulla |
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Definition
Capsule- an envelope of connective tissue that holds the two lobes closely together
Trabeculae- divide the each lobe into lobules
Cortex- composed of large numbers of T cells and scattered dendritic, epithelial, and macrophages. Immature T cells migrate from red bone marrow to the cortex of the thymus, where the proliferate and begin to mature.
Medulla- Consists of widely scattered and more mature T cells, epithelial cells, dendritic cells and macrophages. |
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Term
Lymph nodes: What is the capsule, trabeculae, outer cortex, inner cortex and medulla?
Explain the flow of lymph through the nodes |
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Definition
Capsule- nodes are covered by dense connective tissue. Capsular extensions are called trabeculae that divide the node into compartments, give support and provide a route for blood vessels.
Outer cortex- aggregates of B cells called lymphatic nodules.
Inner cortex- Does not contain lymphatic nodules, instead consists mainly of T cells and dendritic cells.
Medulla- Lymph node that contains B cells.
Lymph flows throgh a lymph node in one direction only, starting with the afferent lymphatic vessels, within the node it goes through sinuses (sub capsular, trabecular, and medullary), and then the medullary sinuses drain into one or two efferent lymphatic vessels. |
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Term
| Spleen: What is the capsule, white pulp, red pulp, and what are the three functions of the red pulp? |
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Definition
Capsule- has a capsule of dense connective tissue, with a serous membrane.
White pulp- consist mostly of lymphocytes and macrophages.
Red pulp- consist of blood filled sinuses.
Functions of red pulp:
1.Removal by macrophages of ruptured, worn out, or defective blood cells and platelets
2.Stroage of platelets
3.Production of blood cells |
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Term
| What are lymphatic nodules, where are they found and what is their other name? |
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Definition
They are egg-shaped masses of lymphatic tissue that are not surrounded by a capsule.
They are scattered throughout lamina propria (connective tissue) of mucous membranes lining the GI, urinary, reproductive and respiratory tracts.
They are also called mucosa-assocaited lymphatic tissue (MALT). |
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Term
| What are the three sections of the grey horn white matter? |
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Definition
1.Anterior (ventral) white columns
2.Posterior (dorsal) white columns
3.Lateral white columns |
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Term
| Where do the pyramids originate and travel through? What happens at the medulla? |
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Definition
| The pyramids originate at the cerebrum, pass through the medulla and through the spinal cord. The pyramids cross over at the medulla "decussation of pyramids". |
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Term
| What is the difference between free nerve endings, encapsulated nerve endings |
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Definition
Free nerve endings are receptors for pain, thermal, tickle, itch and some touch sensations.
Encapsulated nerve endings are for pressure, vibration, and some touch sensations. |
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Term
| What is the difference between first, second and third order neurons? |
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Definition
First- conduct impulses from somatic receptors into the brain stem or spinal cord.
2.Second- conduct impulses from the brain stem and spinal cord to the thalamus or cerebellum..
3.Third- conduct impulses from the thalamus to the primary somatosensory area of the cortex on the same side. |
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Term
| Posterior Column- Medial Lemniscus Pathway to the cortex: Describe what sensations it conveys and its pathway |
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Definition
First order neurons extend from sensory receptors in the trunk and limbs into the spinal cord and ascend to the medulla oblongata on the same side of the body. Axons synapse with second order neurons in the medulla, cross to the other side and enter the medial lemniscus, and then synapses with third order neurons in the thalamus.
It conveys fine touch, stergnosis (recognize shape), proprioception (awareness of position of the body), vibratory sensations. |
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Term
| Anterolateral pathways to the cortex: Explain the pathway and the type of sensations it conveys |
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Definition
First order neurons connect with a receptor of the neck, trunk or free limbs with the spinal cord. They synapse with second order neurons located in the posterior gray horn of the spinal cord. These will cross to the opposite side of the spinal cord, then they pass upward to the brain stem in either the lateral spinaothalamic tract or the anterior spinaothalamc tract.
The later spinothalamic tract conveys sensory impulses for pain and temperature.
The anterior impulses for tickle, itch, crude touch, pressure and vibrations. |
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Term
| Define the location of the primary somatosensory area |
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Definition
| Occupies the post central gyri of the parietal loves of the cerebral cortex. |
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Term
Defien lower motor neurons
What groups of neurons innervate them? |
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Definition
Part of the somatic motor pathways who's cells bodies are located in the brain stem and spinal cord, and their axons extend from the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves to the skeletal muscles of the face and head and from the anterior tray horns of all levels of the spinal cord to the skeletc muscles of the limbs and trunks.
1.Local circuit neurons- input arrives at LMN from nearby interneurons called local circuit neurons.
2.Upper motor neruons- both local circuit neurons and LMN receive input from UMN.
3.Basal gnaglia nuerons- assist movement by providing input through the thalamus to UMN.
4.Cerebellar neurons- aid in movements by controlling the activity of UMN through the thalamus. |
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Term
| Explain the direct motor pathway (pyramidal) |
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Definition
| Never impulses for voluntary movements propagate from the cerebral cortex to LMN via pyramidal pathway. These pathways consist of lateral corticosinal tracts, anterior corticopinal tracts, corticobulbar tracts |
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Term
| Explain the indirect motor pathways (extrapyramidal) |
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Definition
| include all other somatic motor tracts other than the corticospinal and corticobulbar. These consist of rubrospinal, tectospinal, vestibulospinal, lateral reticular spinal, medial reticulospinal. |
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Term
| what is the function of the basal ganglia for movement? |
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Definition
| major role in initiation and termination of movements, suppresses unwanted movement by their inhibitory effects on the thalamus, influences muscle tone |
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Term
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Definition
Monitors intetions for movement by receiving impulses from the motor cortex and basal ganglia,
-monitors actual movement by receiving input from proprioceptors in joints and muscles,
-compares the command signals with the sensory information.
-if there is a discrepancy then it will fix it. |
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Term
Olfaction: What are the olfactory receptors, olfactory hairs, supporting cells, basal cells, olfactory glands
What cranial nerve does it have |
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Definition
Olfactory receptors- first order neurons of the olfactory pathway
Olfactory hairs- cilia that project from the dendrite
Supporting cells- columnar epithelial cells of the mucous membrane lining the nose
Basal cells- located between the supporting, continually undergo cell division to produce new cells.
Olfactory bowmans glands- produce mucus that is carried to the surface of the epithelial by ducts.
Olfactory nerves go into the olfactory jul;b, and then to the olfactory tract and then finally to the primary olfactory area in the frontal lobe. |
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Term
Gustation: what is the taste bud, supporting cells, basal cells
Gustatory pathway and the nerves that innervate the tongue |
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Definition
Taste bud- us an oval body consist of three types of epithelial cells: supporting cells, gustatory cells, and basal cells.
Supporting cells- contain minrocvilli and surround receptor cells
Basal cells- stem cells
The facial nerve and glossopharyngeal nerve are for the tongue, and the vagus nerve serves the epiglottis and throat.
From the taste buds they travel to the medulla, to the limbic system and thalamus, and then the primary gustatory areas of the parietal lobe. |
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Term
| What do rods and cones allow us to see? |
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Definition
| Rods allow us to see black and white, and cones allow us to see colour |
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Term
| What do rods and cones allow us to see? |
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Definition
| Rods allow us to see black and white, and cones allow us to see colour |
|
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Term
| explain the pathway of vision to the brain |
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Definition
| chemicals released by rods and cones induce changes in both bipolar cells and horizontal cells that lead to the generation of nerve impulses. Ganglion cells eventually transmit nerve impulses. The axons of the optic nerve pass through the optic chasm, crossing point of the optic nerve. After passing the optic chasm the fibres, now part of the optic tract, enter the brain and termite in the thalamus. Finall they will end in the primary visual areas in the occipital lobes. |
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Term
What is the located in the outer, middle and inner ear?
What are the sequence of hearing in the ear to the brain? |
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Definition
The outer ear consist of the pinna, the external ear canal and the tympanic membrane.
The middle ear consist of the three auditory ossicles, and is separated by the inner ear from the oval and round window.
Inner ear consists of the semicircular canals, and the cochlea
-sound waves hit tympanic membrane
-malleus vibrates the incus and then the stapes
-the stapes will hit the oval wind and then the round wind
-endolymph is moved in the inner ear
-basial hairs will move in the tectorial membrane.
-never impulses are passed to the vestinbulocochlear nerve, to the medulla oblongata, to the thalamus and then finally the primary auditory area of the cerebral cortex of the temporal lobe |
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Term
| What is the function of PTH |
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Definition
| increase the number and activity of osteoclasts, which realists in electvated bone resorption. |
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Term
| adrenal cortex: layers and what they secrete |
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Definition
zona glomerulosa- secrete mineral corticoids
zona fasciculata- secrete glucocorticoids
zona reticularis- secrete androgens |
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Term
| what does the adrenal medulla produce? |
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Definition
| produces norepinephrine and epinephrine |
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Term
| Pancreas: What does islet of langerhans secrete? |
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Definition
Is part of the endocrine.
consists of:
A cells- secretes glycogen
B cells- secretes insulin
D cells- somatostatin
F cells- pancreatic polypeptide |
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Term
| what four hormones do ovaries produce and what do testes produce? |
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Definition
ovaries produce estrogens, progesterone, inhibin, relaxin
testes produce testosterone |
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