Hypothesis

An unproven conclusion that attempts to explain a phenomenon

Experiment

- A procedure designed to describe the factors in a given situation that affects one another

Variable

Any factor that might affect the outcome of the experiment

Control

One group that is used against which all other experimental samples are compared.

Theory-

A hypothesis that has been validated by many different investigators

Steps of the Scientific Method

1) Observation of a Phenomenon
2) Statement of Hypothesis
3) Data Collection
4) Manipulation and Analysis of Data
5) Reporting Conclusions of Study

Superior

Above

Inferior

Below

Anterior

Front

Posterior

Back

Medial-

Toward the midline

Lateral

Away from the midline

Cranial

Toward the head

Caudal

Toward the tail

Dorsal

 Backside

Ventral

Belly side

Proximal

Nearer to the trunk

Distal

Further from the trunk

Superficial (External)

Toward or at the body surface

Deep(Internal)

Body Cavities

Dorsal Body Cavity-
                -Cranial Cavity (Contains Brain)
                -Vertebral Cavity (Contains Spinal Cord)

Ventral Body Cavity
                -Thoracic Cavity (Contains Heart and Lungs)
                                Lungs-Pleura
                                Heart- Pericardium
                                Walls of Thoracic
                                -Visceral Serosa
                                -Partial Serosa
 Abdominopelvic Cavity (Cavity inferior to the diaphragm)
Lining-Peritoneum
                -Abdominal Cavity (houses stomach, liver, intestines, and other organs)
                -Pelvic Cavity (enclosed by the bony pelvis-contains the reproductive organs, bladder, rectum)

Integumentary System

Protects body; helps regulate temperature; eliminates some wastes; helps makes Vitamin D; Detects sensations such as touch, pain, warmth, and cold

Skeletal System

Supports and protects body; provides surface area for muscle attachments; aids body movement; houses cells that produce blood cells; stores minerals and lipids.

Muscular System

Participates in body movements, such as walking; maintains posture; produces heat

Nervous System

Generates action potentials to regulate body activities; detects changes in body’s internal and external environments, interprets changes, and responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions.

Endocrine System:

Regulates body activities by releasing hormones.

Cardiovascular System

Heart pumps blood through blood vessels; blood carries oxygen and nutrition to cells and carbon dioxide and wastes away from cells and helps regulate acid-base balance, temperature and water content of the body fluids; blood components help defend against disease and repair damaged blood vessels.

Lymphatic System

: Returns proteins and fluid to blood; carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood; contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B cells that protect against disease-causing microbes.

Respiratory System

: Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air; helps regulate acid-base balance of body fluids; air flowing out of lungs through vocal cords produces sounds.

Digestive System

Achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food; absorbs nutrients; eliminates solid wastes.

Urinary System

: Produces, stores, and eliminates urine; eliminates wastes and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood; helps maintain the acid-base balance of body fluids; maintains body’s mineral balance; helps regulate production of red blood cells.

Reproductive System

: Gonads produce gametes that unite to form a new organism; gonads also release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes; associated organs transport and store gametes; mammary glands produce milk.

Ribosomes

Actual site of protein synthesis

Endoplasmic Reticulum:

: Provides a system of transports of cellular substances. Rough ER: modifies and stores the newly formed proteins and dispatch them to other areas of the cell. Involved in phosopholipid and cholesterol synthesis. Smooth ER:Site of steroid and lipid synthesis, lipid metabolism and drug detoxification

Lysosome

To digest worn-out cell organelles and foreign substances

Golgi Apparatus

packages proteins or other substances that enter the cell

Mitochondria

“Powerhouses of the cell” oxidize foodstuffs to produce cellular energy (ATP)

Nucleus

Contains genetic  material. Control Center of Cell

Plasma Membrane

Separates cell contents from the surrounding environment.

Diffusion

: movement of particles from region of greater conc. to region of lesser conc. until equally distributed (small things diffuse best)

Osmosis

movement of water molecules through selectively permeable membrane from area of higher water conc. to an area of lower water conc.

Crenation

Shriveled up cell after Osmosis?

Hemolysis:

The rupture or destruction of a red blood cell

Filtration:

movement of solvents (water and dissolved substances) across selectively permeable membrane by gravity or mechanical pressure

Isotonic

one that has same conc. of  water and solute molecules on both sides of plasma membrane

Hypertonic

has higher conc. of  solutes and lower conc. of  water than normal; rbc under crenation

Hypotonic:

has lower conc. of solutes thus higher conc. of water; rbc undergo hemolysis

Facilitated Diffusion

high conc. -> low using carrier molecules

Active Transport

movement of substances from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration

Phagocytosis

“Cell Eating” White blood cells eating bacteria in the body

Proper use:

of Microscope

Carry by holding the microscope upright, one hand on the harm, with the other supporting the base.
Always start on the lowest magnification
use the Coarse Knob only on low power
Always use a coverslip when observing something with temporary (wet mount)
Before putting up-make sure the slide is out
Clean lens with a grit free lens paper, using circular motions
Do not pull anything off the microscope
If anything is wrong, inform the instructor

Base

Supports the microscope

Substage light or mirror

Light Source

Stage

The platform the slide rests on while being viewed

Iris diaphragm lever

Regulates the amount of light passing through the condenser.

Coarse adjustment knob

: used to focus on the specimen.

Fine adjustment knob

Used for precise focusing once coarse focus had been completed.

Head or Body Tube

Supports the objective lens system

Arm

Vertical portion of the microscope connecting the base and head

Ocular

Allows to make observations of slide

Nosepiece

Change objective lenses

Objective Lenses

permits the use of magnifying and resolving the slide.