Term
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Definition
| - Consists of the nose, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), bronchi, and lungs |
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Term
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Definition
| Includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, and associated structures |
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Term
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Definition
| larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs |
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Term
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Definition
- A series of interconnecting cavities and tubes both outside and within the lungs-nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles;
- Filter, warm, and moisten air and conduct it into the lungs |
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Term
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Definition
- Tubes and tissues within the lungs where gas exchange occurs
- Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli and are the main sites of gas exchange between air and blood. |
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Term
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Definition
| Apecialized organ at entrance of respiratory system that is divided into an external portion and an internal portion called the nasal cavity. |
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Term
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Definition
| - Portion of the nose visible on the face and consists of a supporting framework of bone and hyaline cartilage covered with muscle and skin and lined by a mucous membrane |
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Term
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Definition
(1) warming, moistening, and filtering incoming air;
(2) detecting olfactory stimuli; and
(3) modifying speech vibrations as they pass through the large, hollow resonating chambers. |
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Term
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Definition
| Large space in the anterior aspect of the skull that lies inferior to the nasal bone and superior to the oral cavity; it is lined with muscle and mucous membrane |
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Term
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Definition
- Anterior portion of the nasal cavity just inside the nostrils
- Air enters nostrils, it passes first through the vestibule, which is lined by skin containing coarse hairs that filter out large dust particles |
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Term
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Definition
| Divides the nasal cavity into right and left sides. |
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Term
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Definition
- Olfactory receptors, supporting cells, and basal cells lie in the respiratory region
- Cilia but no goblet cells |
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Term
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Definition
- Wall is composed of skeletal muscles and is lined with a mucous membrane
- FN: a passageway for air and food, provides a resonating chamber for speech sounds, and houses the tonsils |
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Term
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Definition
(1) nasopharynx
(2) oropharynx
(3) laryngopharynx |
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Term
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Definition
- Forms posterior portion of roof of the mouth
- Arch-shaped muscular partition b/t the nasopharynx and oropharynx that is lined by mucous membrane |
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Term
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Definition
- Receives air from nasal cavity along with packages of dust-laden mucus
- Exchanges small amounts of air with auditory tubes to equalize air pressure between pharynx and middle ear |
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Term
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Definition
| Common passageway for air, food, and drink |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Palatine and Lingual Tonsils |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Laryngopharynx is both a respiratory and a digestive pathway |
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Term
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Definition
- Arytenoid cartilages
- Influence changes in position and tension of the vocal folds |
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Term
| Thyroid Cartilage (Adam’s apple) |
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Definition
| - Two fused plates of hyaline cartilage |
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Term
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Definition
| - Elevation of larynx causes the epiglottis to move down and form a lid over the glottis, closing it off. |
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Term
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Definition
| - Ring of hyaline cartilage that forms the inferior wall of larynx |
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Term
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Definition
- Triangular pieces of mostly hyaline cartilage located at posterior, superior border of the cricoid cartilage.
- Form synovial joints with the cricoid cartilage and have a wide range of mobility. |
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Term
| Ventricular Folds (false vocal cords) |
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Definition
- Superior pair
- Do not function in voice production
- FN in holding the breath against pressure in the thoracic cavity
- Lift a heavy object. |
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Term
| Vocal Folds (true vocal cords) |
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Definition
| - Vocal folds are the principal structures of voice produc- tion |
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Term
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Definition
(1) mucosa
(2) submucosa
(3) hyaline cartilage
(4) adventitia (composed of areolar connective tissue). |
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Term
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Definition
- Horizontal rings of hyaline cartilage resemble the letter C
- Connected together by dense connective tissue
- Provide a semirigid support to maintain patency so that the tracheal wall does not collapse inward (especially during inhalation) and obstruct the air passageway. |
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Term
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Definition
| - Lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Extensive branching from the trachea through the terminal bronchioles |
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Term
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Definition
| Double-layered serous membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| Lines the wall of the thoracic cavity the deep layer |
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Term
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Definition
- Contains a small amount of lubricating fluid secreted by the membranes
- Reduces friction b/t membranes, allowing them to slide easily over one another during breathing. |
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Term
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Definition
- Broad inferior portion of the lung
- Fits over convex area of diaphragm |
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Term
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Definition
| Surface of lung lying against the ribs |
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Term
| Mediastinal (medial) Surface |
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Definition
| - Contains region, the hilum through which bronchi, pulmonary blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves enter and exit |
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Term
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Definition
| Apex of the heart lies in cardiac notch |
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Term
| Lobes, Fissures, and Lobules |
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Definition
| right lung, the superior part of the oblique fissure separates the superior lobe from the inferior lobe; the inferior part of the oblique fissure separates the inferior lobe from the middle lobe, which is bordered superiorly by the hori- zontal fissure. |
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Term
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Definition
| Segment of lung tissue that each tertiary bronchus supplies |
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Term
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Definition
- w/in
- contains a lymphatic vessel, an arteriole, a venule, and a branch from a terminal bronchiole |
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Term
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Definition
| Terminal bronchioles subdivide into microscopic branches |
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Term
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Definition
| Simple Squamous Epithelium |
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Term
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Definition
| Cup-shaped outpouching lined by simple squamous epithelium and supported by a thin elastic basement membrane; |
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Term
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Definition
| Consists of two or more alveoli that share a common opening |
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Term
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Definition
- More numerous
- Nearly continuous lining of the alveolar wall.
- Main sites of gas exchange |
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Term
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Definition
- Fewer in number
- Free surfaces containing microvilli, secrete alveolar fluid, which keeps the surface between the cells and the air moist |
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Term
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Definition
- Complex mixture of phospholipids and lipoproteins
- Lowers surface tension of alveolar fluid, which reduces tendency of alveoli to collapse and thus maintains their patency (described later). |
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Term
| Alveolar Macrophages (dust cells) |
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Definition
| Remove fine dust particles and other debris from the alveolar spaces |
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Term
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Definition
| Exchange of O2 and CO2 between the air spaces in the lungs and blood takes place by diffusion across alveolar and capillary walls, |
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Term
| Blood Supply to the Lungs |
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Definition
- Receive blood via two sets of arteries: pulmonary arteries and bronchial arteries
- Pulmonary arteries are only arteries in body that carry deoxygenated blood
- Return of the oxygenated blood to the heart occurs by way of the four pulmonary veins
- Bronchial arteries, which branch from the aorta, deliver oxygenated blood to the lungs. |
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Term
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Definition
| Inhalation (inflow) and exhalation (outflow) of air and involves the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs. |
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Term
| External (pulmonary) Respiration |
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Definition
| Exchange of gases between the alveoli of the lungs and the blood in pulmonary capillaries across the respiratory membrane. In this process, pulmonary capillary blood gains O2 and loses CO2 |
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Term
| Internal (tissue) Respiration |
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Definition
- Exchange of gases between blood in systemic capillaries and tissue cells.
- Blood loses O2 and gains CO2. Within cells, the metabolic reac- tions that consume O2 and give off CO2 during the production of ATP are termed cellular respiration |
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Term
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Definition
- Before each inhalation, the air pressure inside the lungs is equal to the air pressure of the atmosphere, which at sea level is about 760 millime- ters of mercury (mmHg), or 1 atmosphere (atm)
- For air to flow into the lungs, the pressure inside the alveoli must become lower than the atmospheric pressure. This condition is achieved by increasing the size of the lungs. |
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Term
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Definition
- Inverse relationship between volume and pressure
- Ift size of a closed container is increased, the pressure of the gas inside the container decreases, and that if the size of the container is decreased, then the pressure inside it increases. |
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Term
| Intrapleural (intrathoracic) pressure |
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Definition
- Pressure b/t the two pleural layers in the pleural cavity
- Always subatmospheric (lower than atmospheric pressure) |
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Term
| Alveolar (intrapulmonic) pressure |
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Definition
| As the volume of the lungs increases in this way, the pressure inside the lungs, |
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Term
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Definition
- Du to a pressure gradient, but in this case the gradient is in the opposite direction: pressure in the lungs is greater than the pressure of the atmosphere
- (1) the recoil of elastic fibers that were stretched during inhalation and (
2) the inward pull of surface tension due to the film of alveolar fluid
- Exhalation becomes active only during forceful breathing,
- abdominals and internal intercostals (see Figure 23.13a)—contract, which increases pressure in the abdominal region and thorax |
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Term
| Other Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation |
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Definition
| Three factors affect the rate of airflow and the ease of pulmonary ventilation: surface tension of the alveolar fluid, compliance of the lungs, and airway resistance. |
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Term
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Definition
Arises at all air–water interfaces because the polar water molecules are more strongly attracted to each other than they are to gas molecules in the air.
- causes the alveoli to assume the smallest possible diameter.
- During breathing, surface tension must be overcome to expand the lungs during each inhalation.
- Accounts for two-thirds of lung elastic recoil, which decreases the size of alveoli during exhalation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Airways, especially the bronchioles, offer some resistance to the normal flow of air into and out of the lungs. |
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Term
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Definition
| can consist of shallow, deep, or combined shallow and deep breath- ing. |
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Term
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Definition
- pattern of shallow (chest) breathing
- consists of an upward and outward movement of the chest due to contraction of the external intercostal muscles. |
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Term
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Definition
- pattern of deep (abdominal) breathing
- consists of the outward movement of the abdomen due to the contraction and descent of the diaphragm |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| total volume of air inhaled and exhaled each minute |
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Term
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Definition
| apparatus commonly used to measure the volume of air exchanged during breathing and the respiratory rate |
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Term
| anatomic (respiratory) dead space |
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Definition
| conducting airways with air that does not undergo respiratory exchange |
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Term
| alveolar ventilation rate |
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Definition
| volume of air per minute that actually reaches the respiratory zone. |
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Term
| inspiratory reserve volume |
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Definition
- additional inhaled air
- Even more air can be inhaled if inhalation follows forced exhalation |
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Term
| expiratory reserve volume |
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Definition
| the volume of air that can be exhaled from the lungs in 1 second with maximal ef- fort following a maximal inhalation. |
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Term
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Definition
| Even after the expiratory reserve volume is exhaled, consider- able air remains in the lungs because the subatmospheric in- trapleural pressure keeps the alveoli slightly inflated, and some air also remains in the noncollapsible airways. |
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Term
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Definition
| the sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume |
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Term
| Functional residual capacity |
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Definition
| the sum of residual volume and expi- ratory reserve volume |
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Term
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Definition
| sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expira- tory reserve volume |
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Term
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Definition
| sum of vital capacity and residual volume |
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Term
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Definition
- each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if no other gases were present.
- total pressure of the mixture is calculated simply by adding all the partial pressures.
- We can determine the partial pressure exerted by each compo- nent in the mixture by multiplying the percentage of the gas in the mixture by the total pressure of the mixture. |
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Term
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Definition
- Partial pressures determine the movement of O2 and CO2 between the atmosphere and lungs, between the lungs and blood, and between the blood and body cells
- The greater the difference in partial pressure, the faster the rate of diffusion |
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Term
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Definition
- the quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and its solubility.
- the ability of a gas to stay in solution is greater when its partial pressure is higher and when it has a high solubility in water.
- higher the partial pressure of a gas over a liquid and the higher the solubility, the more gas will stay in solution.
- comparison to oxygen, much more CO2 is dissolved in blood plasma because the solubility of CO2 is 24 times greater than that of O2. Even though the air we breathe contains mostly N2, this gas has no known effect on bodily functions, and at sea level pressure very little of it dissolves in blood plasma because its solubility is very low |
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Term
| External Respiration or Pulmonary Gas Exchange |
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Definition
the diffusion of O2 from air in the alveoli of the lungs to blood in pulmonary capillaries and the diffusion of CO2 in the opposite direction
- As blood flows through the pulmonary capillaries, it picks up O2 from alve- olar air and unloads CO2 into alveolar air
- each gas diffuses in- dependently from the area where its partial pressure is higher to the area where its partial pressure is lower. |
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Term
| Internal respiration or systemic gas exchange |
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Definition
- The exchange of O2 and CO2 between systemic capillaries and tissue cells
- Unlike external respira- tion, which occurs only in the lungs, internal respiration occurs in tissues throughout the body. |
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Term
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Definition
- Oxygen does not dissolve easily in water, so only about 1.5% of inhaled O2 is dissolved in blood plasma
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Term
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Definition
| Oxygen and hemoglobin bind in an easily reversible reaction |
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Term
| The Relationship between Hemoglobin and Oxygen Partial Pressure |
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Definition
most important factor that determines how much O2 binds to hemoglobin is the PO2; the higher the PO2, the more O2 combines with Hb
- expresses the average saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen
- the greater the PO2, the more O2 will bind to hemoglobin until all the available hemoglobin molecules are saturated.
- only 25% of the available O2 unloads from hemoglobin and is used by tissue cells under resting conditions.
- blood picks up a nearly full load of O2 from the lungs even when the PO2 of alveolar air is as low as 60 mmHg. |
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Term
Other Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hemoglobin for
Oxygen |
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Definition
- Acidity (pH
- Partial pressure of carbon dioxid
- Temperature
- BPG |
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Term
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Definition
gaseous CO2, which is transported in the blood in three main forms
1. Dissolved CO2
2. Carbamino compounds
3. Bicarbonate ions. |
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Term
| 2. Carbaminohemoglobin (Hb—CO ) |
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Definition
| main CO2 binding sites are the terminal amino acids in the two alpha and two beta globin chains. Hemoglobin that has bound CO2 |
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Term
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Definition
- greatest percentage of CO2—about 70%—is transported in blood plasma
- reacts with water in the presence of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA) to form carbonic acid, which dissociates into Hﰈ and HCO3ﰊ |
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Term
| Summary of Gas Exchange and Transport in Lungs and Tissues |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
respiratory muscles contract as a result of nerve impulses transmitted to them from centers in the brain and relax in the absence of nerve impulses
- neurons located bilaterally in the medulla oblongata and pons of the brain |
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Term
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Definition
- widely dispersed group of neurons
- divided into three areas on the basis of their functions: (1) the medullary rhythmicity area in the medulla oblongata; (2) the pneumotaxic area in the pons; and (3) the apneustic area, also in the pons |
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Term
| Medullary Rhythmicity Area |
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Definition
- control the basic rhythm of respiration
- inspiratory and expiratory areas within the medullary rhythmicity are |
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Term
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Definition
- establish the basic rhythm of breath- ing
- impulses prop- agate to the external intercostal muscles via intercostal nerves and to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerves.
- muscles relax allowing passive elastic recoil of the lungs and thoracic wall. |
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Term
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Definition
- inactive during quiet breathing
- during forceful breathing nerve impulses from the inspiratory area activate the expiratory area |
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Term
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Definition
- help coordinate the transition between inhalation and exhalation
- transmits inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory area.
- turn off the inspiratory area before the lungs become too full of air.
- shorten the duration of inhalation
- more active, breathing rate is more rapid |
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Term
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Definition
- coordinates the transition between inhalation and exhalation
- sends stimulatory impulses to the inspiratory area that activate it and prolong inhalation.
- long, deep inhalation
- pneumotaxic area is active, it overrides signals from the ap- neustic area. |
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Term
| Regulation of the Respiratory Center |
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Definition
| can be modified in response to inputs from other brain regions, receptors in the peripheral nervous system, and other factors. |
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Term
| Cortical Influences on Respiration |
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Definition
- Can voluntarily alter our pattern of breathing
- Voluntary control is protective because it enables us to prevent water or irritating gases from entering the lungs
- limited by the buildup of CO2 and Hﰈ in the body
- PCO2 and Hﰈ concentrations increase to a certain level, the inspiratory area is strongly stimulated, nerve impulses are sent along the phrenic and intercostal nerves to inspiratory muscles, and breathing resumes, whether the person wants it to or not |
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Term
| Chemoreceptor Regulation of Respiration |
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Definition
| chemical stimuli modulate how quickly and how deeply we breathe. |
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Term
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Definition
located in or near the medulla oblongata
-Ppart of peripheral nervous system and are sensitive to changes in PO2, Hﰈ, and PCO2 in the blood |
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Term
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Definition
| clusters of chemoreceptors located in the wall of the arch of the aorta |
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Term
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Definition
- oval nodules in the wall of the left and right common carotid arteries
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Term
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Definition
- slight increase in PCO2
- As the breathing rate decreases or breathing ceases altogether, PO2 falls lower and lower, establish- ing a positive feedback cycle with a possibly fatal result. |
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Term
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Definition
- Rapid and deep breathing
- Allows the inhalation of more O2 and exhalation of more CO2 until PCO2 and Hﰈ are low- ered to normal. |
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Term
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Definition
- arterial PCO2 is lower than 40 mmHg—
- central and peripheral chemore- ceptors are not stimulated, and stimulatory impulses are not sent to the inspiratory area. |
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Term
| Proprioceptor Stimulation of Respiration |
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Definition
- rate and depth of breathing increase, even before changes in PO2, PCO2, or Hﰈ level occur
- Nerve impulses from the proprioceptors stimulate the inspiratory area of the medulla oblongata. |
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Term
| inflation (Hering–Breuer) reflex |
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Definition
| mainly a protective mechanism for pre- venting excessive inflation of the lungs rather than a key compo- nent in the normal regulation of respiration. |
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Term
| Other Influences on Respiratio |
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Definition
- Limbic system stimulation.
- Temperature
- Pain
- Stretching the anal sphincter muscle
- Irritation of airways
- Blood pressure |
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Term
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Definition
- disorder characterized by chronic air- way inflammation, airway hypersensitivity to a variety of stimuli, and airway obstruction.
- due to smooth muscle spasms in the walls of smaller bronchi and bronchioles, edema of the mucosa of the airways, increased mucus secretion, and/or damage to the epithelium of the airway. |
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Term
| Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease |
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Definition
- characterized by chronic and recurrent obstruction of airflow, which increases airway resistance
- principal types of COPD are emphysema and chronic bronchitis
- preventable because its most common cause is cigarette smoking or breathing secondhand smoke |
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Term
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Definition
| less surface area for gas exchange, O2 diffusion across the damaged respiratory membrane is reduced. Blood O2 level is some- what lowered, and any mild exercise that raises the O2 requirements of the cells leaves the patient breathless |
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Term
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Definition
| excessive secretion of bronchial mucus accompanied by a productive cough |
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