Cell Growth

DNA Replication

Distribution of duplicated Daughter cells

Cell Division

Mitosis

Interphase

M Phase (Mitosis)

G1 Gap (Interphase)

(Cells that cease division)

S Phase (DNA Replication)

G2 Gap (Interphase)

Prophase

Prometaphase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Cytokinesis

Nuclear membrane breaks down, chromosomes pair and condense held together by centromere.

Centrosomes head to either end of cell and organise production of mitotic spindle.

Centromeres divide Chromatids and are pulled apart by spindle fibres, moving towards centrosomes.

Chromatids now referred to as Daughter Chromosomes.

Nuclear membrane reforms over Chromosomes.

Chromosomes decondense.

Spindle fibres disappear.

A form of cell division which produces haploid sex cells from diploid cells.

The process is one DNA replication followed by two successful nuclear and cellular divisions.

Made up of three proteins: Actin filaments (microfilaments), intermediate filaments and microtubules.

Provides structure to a cell, stability and performs cytokinesis.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Polymer of two strands of nucleotides Hydrogen bonded together.

Deoxyribose sugar, phosphate and one of four nitrogenous bases.

Cytosine and Guanine with 3 Hydrogen bonds between them

Thymine and Adenine with 2 Hydrogen bonds between them

Double helix of DNA is unwound, the two separate strands become templates.

The bases on either strand are matched to synthesize new partner strands

Molecules matching the bases attach on each strand and when completed result in two DNA strands identical to the original parent strand.

Covers the whole surface of the body and lines all internal surfaces.

Closely packed cells and ranged in one or more layers.

Thin, flat plates

Horizontal, flattened, elliptical nuclei

Lines cavities such as the mouth, blood vessels, heart and lungs

Makes up the outer layer of skin

Roughly square/cuboidal

Spherical nucleus

Found in glands

Lines kidney and tubules and the ducts of glands

Forms germinal epithelium to produce egg and sperm cells

Occurs in one or more layers

Elongated and column shaped

Elongated nuclei near base of the cell

Lines stomach and intestines

Some are specialised for sensory reception in the nose, ears and the taste buds on the tongue

Goblet cells are found between them in the duodenum of cows which secrete mucous for surface lubrication

Simple, columnar cells

Covered in Cilia (Fine, hair like growths)

Capable of rapid, rhythmic and wavelike beatings

Movement of the Cilia cause mucous produced by Goblet cells to flow in the direction they move

Found in air passages such as the nose

Also the uterus and fallopian tubes as the Cilia propel ova to the uterus

Columnar epithelium with goblet cells and no Cilia

The goblet cells can outnumber the normal epithelial cells

Specialised as gland cells to synthesise and secrete substances such as hormones, enzymes, milk, mucous, sweat, wax and saliva

Unicellular glands consist of single, isolated cells such as goblet cells

A multicellular gland can be formed and will be composed of a cluster of cells, an example is the salivary gland

Used in Endocrine and Exocrine functions

Composed of several layers of cells

Otherwise known as compound

Made to withstand wear and tear

The top cells are flat and scaly and may or may not be keratinised

Mammalian skin is dry, keratinised stratified epithelium

Found in the lining of the mouth but unkeratinised

Flat cells found at the apical layer

Cuboidal or columnar in the deep layers

Basal layer cells undergo cell division continuously

Cells at the apical layer die but are continuously replaced

Rarely seen

Involved in protection, secretion and absorption

Rarely seen

Involved in protection and secretion

Found in the Urinary Tract

Appearance varies between stratified cuboidal when relaxed and stratified squamous when the tissues are stretched

Appears to have several layers

Cells are attached at the basement membrane

Not all cells extend to the surface

Can be ciliated or non ciliated

Apical layer and deep layers beneath contain keratin

Keratin is a fibrous protein

Forms a superficial layer of skin

Provides protection from heat, microbes and chemicals

Contains no keratin

Found in the lining of the mouth and oesophagus

Remains moist

Provides defense against microbes

In simple epithelium of gases, liquids and fluids

Walls of capillaries and lungs

Polarised to face a bodily surface, cavity, the lumen or ducts

Surface adjacent to other cells on either side

Secreted by epithelial cells

Contains Collagen

Weblike strand of transmembrane proteins

They fuse the outer surfaces of plasma membranes

Prevents the contents of the cells from leaking into the blood

Found on apical surfaces

Regulates transportation between the cells

Transmembrane proteins called Cadherins

Plaque dense proteins layer the insides of membranes

Often form Adhesion belt zones

Resists separation during contraction

More basal than tight junctions

Can be bands encircling the entire cells or just spots of attachment

Cylinders constructed of Connexins to form fluid filled tunnels connected to neighbouring cells

Plasma membranes separated by a narrow intercellular gap

Permits the free passage between cells

Plaque and Cadherins

Plaque attached to intermediate filaments

Gives stability to cells and tissues

Transmembrane proteins called Integrins

Attach to intermediate filaments on the inside of plasma membranes

Attach to the Laminin in the Basement membrane

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide transport

Transport of nutrients from Gastrointestinal Tract

Circulation of hormones and antibodies

Heat dissipation and temperature regulation

Maintain Homeostasis for waste, nutrients, ions and glucose

Arteries

Arterioles

Capillaries

Venules

Veins

Carries blood away from the heart to other organs

Large elastic arteries, walls stretch and fibres recoil

Small arterioles

Muscular: smooth muscle fibres for vasoconstriction and vasodilation

3 layers

Inner Endothelium

Thickest middle with elastic fibres

Outer coat with elastic and collagen fibres

Sympathetic neurons stimulate the smooth muscles to contract

Very small Arteries that carry blood to Capillaries

Made of smooth muscle with very few elastic fibres

A resistance is caused by friction between blood and the inner walls

Contraction of the walls increases friction, decreases blood flow to the capillaries and increases blood pressure

Capillaries

Microscopic vessels

Connects arterioles to venules and forms a microcirculation

There is a capillary network to nearly all cells in the body

They function as vessels for exchange

The are composed of a single layer of cells and a basement membrane with precapillary sphincters

Little veins made of several united capillaries

Collects blood and delivers it to veins

Contains few smooth muscle fibres

Has porous walls

They have a thick outer layer made up of collagen and elastic

They are distensible and cannot withstand high pressure

They include valves made of folds of internal layers which prevent a backflow and help to pump blood to the heart

Allows he pumping action to encourage the blood flow around the body

Blood enters the right Atria through the Superior Vena Cava and leaves the right Ventricle through a tricuspid valve, passes through the pulmonary arterial system and enters the left Atria through pulmonary veins and leaves the left Ventricle through a bicuspid valve to pass through the Aorta.

The Sinoatrial Node acts as a natural pacemaker, firing at regular intervals to cause the heart to beat

The Atrioventricular Node works as an electrical relay station between the upper and lower chambers

Ventricular contraction is classed as diastole when ventricles are relaxed and systole when ventricles are contracted

The bundles of HIS transmits the signals from the AV

Purkinje fibres split in atria and ventricle walls and their origin is at the SN

The Pericardium is the membrane surrounding and protecting the heart

The Epicardium is the outer layer made out of thin smooth muscle with a slippery texture

The Myocardium is the middle layer and is the bulk of the heart and the pumping action.

Involuntary and striated

Found in the walls of the heart and the myocardium

Can be sexually dimorphic where the physical appearance varies by sex

The aim is to ensure survival of the species

It involves sex hormones from the gonads and gonadotropic hormones from the anterior pituitary gland

Testes

Prostate

Seminal Vesicles

Vas Deferens

Epididymis

Bulbourethral Glands

Penis

Scrotum

An inflatable tissue that is an organ of intromission

Delivers sperm via the urethral canal

A sac containing the testes

Maintains the temperature in the testes for spermatogenesis

Ovary

Uterus

Uterine Tube/Fallopian Tube

Oviducts

Vagina

Vulva

The main endocrine gland of the female reproductive system

Secretes oestrogen and progesterone

In charge of gamete formation and release

Testosterone

Active and aggressive attitudes

Larger body size

Enhanced musculature and body growth

Oestrogen

Subcutaneous fat deposits

Wide pelvis

The mitotic and meiotic division of diploid spermatogonium

Mitosis - 2 cells, 1 adheres to the basement membrane and the other moves inwards

Meiosis - secondary spermatocytes and spermatids (haploid)

Cytoplasmic bridges

Spermatids transform into unique specialised cells as spermatozoa

Aid spermatogenic cells

Provide nutrients and metabolites

Secrete fluids

Engulf and digest substances

Supplied directly to sertoli cells

Involved with the development on germinal cells

The final maturation of the epididymis

High levels are maintained by an androgen binding protein

Sperm in the lumen is transported

They undergo the final stages of biochemical and physiological changes

Mature sperm is then expelled

Temperature for delivery is regulated

Sperm is formulated and continuously released into the lumen of semniferous tubules

Travels through the epididymis and the Vas deferens

Secretions mix with proteins, enzymes and alkalines

Bulbourethral glands secrete lubricants

Penis erection

Semen is expelled

Formulation, development and release of eggs

Secretion of females sex hormones

Female embryo development, prenatal care

Primary follicle development

Atresia

Puberty

Development of follicles

The cyclical production of eggs

Regulation by secretion of hormones

From the ovary, one follicle continues and matures into a graffian follicle.

Moves into antrum

Oocyte reaches antrum by day 12/13

Graffian protrudes from weak surface of ovary

Ovulation

Mature follicular cells form the coprus luteum

Fertilisation

Diploid chromosomes

Development halted at prophase

Meiosis resumes with leutenising hormones and follicle stimulating hormone

Fist division before ovulation halves the chromosomes

Secondary oocyte begins second meiotic division in metaphase

Fertilisation as the oocyte completes the second meiotic division

Controlling metabolism

Blood sugar regulation

Deactivating hormones, drugs and toxins

Bile formation

The largest gland

Liver lobule is the basic anatomical functional unit

Lobule is part of a hexagon connected to incoming blood (peripherally) and a vein draining the blood (centrally)

Hepatocytes are packed in the walls of the liver and they extract oxygen and nutrients from the blood, form bile and secrete it in caniculi which forms bile ducts

Sinusoids from porous capillaries where arterial and portal blood is mixed

Salts are involved in the physiological important role

Pigments are excretory products

Salts emulsify large fat droplets, bile salts mix with fat and water due to the hydrocarbon ring and several charged groups

Bile forms small fat particles to allow digestion by lipase enzymes as emulsification

Glucose is a carbohydrate used as a fuel and carbs are broken down in the intestine into simple sugars such as glucose, galactose and fructose which is then transported to the liver

Sugars enter the liver cells and enzymes convert them all to glucose

Tissues obtain glusoce from the blood, which obtains glucose from the liver

An elevated blood sugar level results in an increased glucose uptake by the liver as liver cells incorporate the glucose into glycogen which is stored in the liver and muscle cells

Glycogenesis forms glycogen

Glycogenolysis breaks down glycogen

A source of glucose during fasting or starvation

Specialist liver enzymes forms pyruvate by breaking down amino acids as pyruvate can be converted to glucose

The breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol

Glycerol molecules recombine into glucose

Lactic acid can also be converted into pyruvate and then glucose

Caused by excess cortisol

Hypertension

Lymph atrophy

Gastric ulcers

Decreased white blood cells

Vascular

Structural vs functional defect

Acute vs chronic

Infectious when transmitted from one animal to another such as a bacteria or virus

Contagious when transmitted by contact such as mites or lice

Epizootic is the spread of disease in an animal

Enzootic is a disease continuously present in an animal population

Infections are when germs gain entry and maintain themselves in the body

Bacteria

Viruses

Protozoa

Single celled organisms

Simple

Achieves binary fission within 20 minutes

Sporing

Commensalisms

Mutualisms

Pathogenism

Small agents

Live a parasitic existence by invading other cells

Single celled organisms

Has a separate nucleus

Lives a complicated lifestyle

To resist infectious agents

Is specific against individual diseases

4 types

Natural

Passive

Active

Artificial

Arises in an animal without assistance

Natural barriers such as epithelial layers or mucous membranes

Man made

Vaccinations

Animals that infect others directly

Animals with no signs of disease

Animals perhaps recovered from the disease

Pathogen is transferred to healthy animal by a vector

Long term hosts of an infection but not affected by it

Mechanisms of animal resistance to disease can be split into two categories

Intrinsic

Extrinsic

The nature of the animal

Genetic makeup

Age

Sex

Immune system

Environment

Housing

Nutrition

Management

Young animals need to be protected from the cold, have attention to nutrition and be safeguarded against micro-organisms

Diseases hit the young as they have no experience with infection, no immunity and a lack of bodily reserves

Puberty, parturition and lactation all have an influence of disease

Strenuous or unaccostomed exercise

Enforced rest of full energy rations

Feeding - balance of rations, regular feeding, trough space and quality

Pasture management such as allowing worms

Shelter

Warmth

Ventilation

Space

Light

Cleaning and disinfection

Disposal of faeces

Disposal of carcasses

Care after parturition

Care of new born

Age segregation

Weaning

Shearing

Castration

Milking

Helminths

Arthropods

Lice

Midges

Flies

Ticks

Mites

Relatively complex

Immunity is difficult to obtain

Antigens against each stage

Insecta

Arachnida

Infestations

Host specific types