Decorah Post

These were Norwegian-language papers- Decorah Post one of the most important. This paper operated in both Norwegian and English until 1972 – so had an audience among immigrants, their children, and even their grandchildren. Comic strip Han Ola og Han Per ran in the here – and continued to run after 1972 in some small town papers in the upper Midwest. It was written in sort of broken Norwegian/English and was about the foibles of adjusting to life in America.  Helped people to laugh at themselves.

Farmers Alliance

Farmers increasingly began to look to the high freight charges that railroad companies made them pay to transport their crop, excessive interest rates from bankers and merchants from whom they borrowed, and fiscal policies of the federal government that limited the supply of money all kept prices low (which was the cause). By far the largest political movement in the nineteenth century. It began in Texas in the late 1870s and spread to 40 states by 1890. One Grange leader in Texas said that farmers in America during this era had two choices “success and freedom or failure and servitude” So for them, this was a question of fundamental American freedom. Felt their freedom was being taken away by large banks and corporations that were making huge profits off of their hard work – and leaving them in the lurch – in debt forever or about to lose their land. At first, the Grange stayed aloof from electoral politics. Politics, as we discussed, were pretty corrupt and almost completely controlled by the “robber barons” and their friends.  Politicians – who men like Carnegie and Rockefeller could convince with payoffs – were not generally going to be sympathetic. Instead, they formed cooperatives – they pooled their crops together and used their numbers and high volume of staple crops to transport to demand lower freight prices.  Also wanted to launch cooperative financing – cooperatives would loan money to their members at a lower rate than banks. Again – this movement involved both black and white farmers. This only makes sense – they were trying to get large numbers of people involved – the more people/crops involved, the more they could push railroad companies to give them a good deal.  They wanted to be united – didn't want the possibility of a different cooperative coming in and undercutting them.  So this was a movement open to all. However, none of them had any money.  And banks were unwilling to help them here, as you can imagine. Yet – farmers cooperatives remain a vital part of rural life.  My mother works at the Hamlin County Farmers Co-op in Hayti. This is where local farmers go to have machinery repaired, to buy seed, fertilizer, gas and tools, and is also where they sell their grain, corn, and soybeans. This has been the role these types of co-ops have played since their inception – farmers even still simply get better deals if they can go in together as a group. This issue – lack of money and lack of access to it - is what drove Farmers Alliance members into politics. They proposed a program by which the federal government would store their crops in warehouses where they could be kept until they were sold through Alliance exchanges. The feds could keep their crops as long as they were allowed to sell through their co-ops. The crops would be collateral on the low-interest loans issued by the government.  This would take banks and merchants out of the picture entirely. And was in the best interests of the US, as the nation did not want to import staple crops. So this is what brought the Farmers Alliance into politics – pushing for this, which they called the “subtreasury plan” -In many areas of the country, they had a great deal of initial success.  

Populist Party

In the 1890s, the Farmers Alliance evolved into the People's Party (or, the Populists.) It spoke not only for farmers but also for “the producing classes”. It did best in western states like Colorado and Idaho where they gained the support of miners and other industrial workers. Also gained support of labor leaders when they became involved in cases involving strikes. However their main base of support was in the rural South and Midwest. They used the thousands of local organizations that the Farmers Alliance had formed to             undertake a huge education program. Sent speakers and literature on various political questions to these organizations. Over a thousand Populist newspapers operating during this era (An aside – the notion of journalism being “objective” is relatively new.  At this period most newspapers had a partisan opinion and this was an important part of influencing debate in America.) Throughout rural America, men and women, black and white alike gathered to hear speakers and discuss ideas.  In many cases these meetings resembled religious revivals. Farm women also began to organize and discuss politics. Populists were by and large very supportive of women's suffrage.  Some of the earliest states to     grant women suffrage were states where Populists were very powerful – Idaho and Colorado, for example, got suffrage under Populist governments. Observers found this movement remarkable - “people commenced to think who had never thought before, and people talked who had seldom spoken.  Little by little they began to theorize about their condition.”  This is really a last stand for a certain notion of what being a true American was about. Believed in a nation of small landowning farmers and had a great deal of respect for the dignity of work. Populist party platform – written by a former Radial Republican from Minnesota. “Wealth belongs to him who creates it, and every dollar taken without equivalent is robbery.” Argued that the political corruption and economic inequality of the era caused “moral, political, and financial ruin.” “The fruits and the toil of millions are boldly stolen to build up collosal fortunes...while their possessors despise the republic and endanger liberty.”     Called for reforms which would mostly be adopted in the coming decades. direct election of US Senators, government control of rail lines, graduated income tax, right to form labor unions. Believed the government was the true representative of the people, so the government should become involved in regulating the economy. Again this was at first an interracial movement.  Many southern populist leaders spoke in front of interracial audiences – unusual in the Jim Crow South - “You are kept apart that you might be separately fleeced of your earnings,” said one Populist speaker in Georgia to an integrated audience. In some states in the upper South, Jim Crow came about slowly – and black and white voters together elected Populist state governments. However, in most of the South, white Democrats were successful in stopping the populists – through warning whites about “Negro supremacy,” intimidation and threats of Populist voters,    and stuffing ballot boxes. But Populists very successful in the West and Midwest.  Won 5 states and 22 electoral votes in the 1892 election, and elected 3 governors and 15 members of Congress.  The Populist governor of Kansas anticipated MLK's famous speech 70 years later when he said

            “I have a dream...in the beautiful vision of a coming time I behold the abolition of poverty.  A       time is foreshadowed when liberty, equality, and justice shall have permanent abiding places in       the republic.”

In 1894, Populists did even better in rural areas, but found that their message didn't translate well among urban laborers, whom they needed in order to become a truly national party.  Many of the issues that interested populists – monetary reform, government control of railroads,           etc – not relevant to urban people. And as indicated before, Dems helped urban people in a way that Populists weren't particularly willing to do. Also, rhetoric like that above was scary to a lot of people – in the recession of 1894, most people turned to the Democrats (Grover Cleveland) rather than the Populists for another path.  

Afong Moy

The first recorded Chinese person in America was a teenage girl. Related to American image of Chinese.  She toured the West Coast in a diorama of sorts - literally on display  in 1830s.  People watched in awe as she ate using chopsticks, counted in Chinese, did math using an abacus, and walked on her four-inch long bound feet. Others – almost like circus freaks – also toured America during this era.  

Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association

Chinese communities organized into highly stratified organizations. Clans took care of day-to-day needs of Chinese men, such as housing. Clans organized into civic associations. Six powerful associations made up the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association of America. These groups provided order and protection to Chinese people in the cities. Representatives of the association met Chinese people when they arrived and assisted them – this was not just to help immigrants but also to make sure they were brought into the organizations. Did provide assistance – aid to the sick and unemployed, and helped the men to send remittances back to relatives in China.  Mediated disputes. Sponsored temples where men could meditate and worship. Men who had been removed from these groups often formed tongs: These groups were involved in criminal activity – mostly smuggling prostitutes from China into the US for the almost exclusively male population of chinese men. Women kidnapped or sold in China – and mistreated and sometimes used as pawns in tong wars in the US.

Chinese Exclusion Act

In 1882, Congress passed the Act – which did what the name would suggest – banned Chinese from immigrating. This however did not stop the persecution of Chinese living in America – only heightened it – with the hopes that all chinese would leave. City of Seattle attempted to expel all Chinese residents . Additionally, other laws passed that restricted the right of Chinese to travel between states, travel between China and the US, and that required Chinese to register with the government.  [LIFTED IN 1952]

Paper Sons

:  Created a “slot” for a Chinese man to immigrate to the United States.  Men would sell these slots to other Chinese men who wanted to immigrate.  The US was aware this was happening and subjected men who immigrated as “paper sons” to intense scrutiny.  They were detained for anywhere from two weeks to three years while officials investigated their claims.  

Pogroms

Anti-Jewish riots that were encourages by local authority. Cause: historic hatred towards Jews (religiously motivated) and political issues that scapegoated Jews. 

Tenements

: Houses specifically designed. More than 700 people in an acre. Housed a lot of people in a small place. Mostly associated with NYC and lower East side of Manhattan. Diseases living in close quarters like Tuberculosis. High rates of vanerial disease/mental health. The rent was high. Example: 97 Orchard Street; 5-7 people per family; 20 apartments; 5 basements; dark staircase in the center of the house; 3 rooms in one apartment- front room, kitchen, small bed room; provided own stove; no bathroom or shower facility; garbage at front of the house (before sanitation).

Leo Frank

a Jewish-American pencil factory superintendent who was the last person to see 13 year old, factory worker, Mary Phagan alive. He was a rich, Jewish Yankee. He was found guilty and sentenced to death, but the governor of GA made it life in prison. Knights of Mary Phagan (2000 names released and included pastors, police officers, attorney, state legislator, etc.) kidnapped Leo from his jail and hung him. All of this drew attention to questions of anti-Semitism in the US. 

Orthodox Judaism

Germany brought reformed Judaism and it was an attempt to bring the Western world and Judaism together. Stressed tradition and ritual, so they maintained their Jewish ways. Set apart from others: way they dressed, language (Yiddish), kosher, etc. This form became less common over the years. 

Conservative Judaism

Believes that the Law should change and adapt, absorbing aspects of the predominant culture while remaining true to Judaism's values. They respond better to conditions in America. 

Yiddish

Language spoken by the Orthodox. Unknown to America prior to immigration. It is a Germanic language with Hebrew lettering. Singers, movie theaters, radio stations, and newspapers used this language. It became less common over the years. 

Costa George Najour

He was a 23 year old immigrant from Syria. In 1909 he petitioned the US Government for citizenship and in December, 1909, in Atlanta, he attended a hearing in circuit court regarding his petition. The question before the court: did he fit the racial requirement for citizenship? People eligible for citizenship had to be white or of African descent. The attorney for the US government argued that he was not white and was ineligible for citizenship, but he said he was white. Court agreed with Najour.  This was a new understanding of race and citizenship involving immigrants from Syria since Syrians as a group worked very hard to be seen as white.

Peddling

Try to sell (something, esp. small goods) by going from house to house or place to place. Peddling brought them into people's homes and lives in a somewhat intimate way. Additionally – many of them became successful businessmen and women from their            work as peddlers.  Many established permanent brick-and-mortar stores or bought land with money they made peddling. Additionally, as said previously, these people were Christian.  Some of them began to join American protestant and catholic churches.  So they fit in with whites in some ways. 

1790 Naturalization Act

Barred blacks and Asians from becoming American citizens.  In 1870, blacks became citizens through the 14^th and 15^th amendments.  

Espionage Act

1917- Prohibited spying, interfering with the draft, or making statements that might impede military success. The postmaster banned newspapers and magazines that were critical of the administration. This included immigrant papers and nearly the entire Socialist press  which as said before was very popular. 

Sedition Act

1918- Made it a crime to make spoken or written statements that were critical of the form of government or harmed the war effort. More than 2,000 people found guilty of violating this act. Including one man who was overheard saying that the murder of innocent women and children by Germans was no worse than what the US did during its war in the Philippines in 1899-1903. It forbade the use of "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language" about the United States government, its flag, or its armed forces or that caused others to view the American government or its institutions with contempt. This act extended the Espionage Act. 

Red Scare

Hysteria over the perceived threat posed by Communists in the U.S. (Communists were often referred to as "Reds" for their allegiance to the red Soviet flag.) This led to a range of actions that had a profound and enduring effect on U.S. government and society. Hundreds of immigrant radicals were deported as part of this. The climate of fear and repression linked to this finally began to ease by the late 1950s.

Emma Goldman

Hundreds of immigrant radicals were deported as part of the Red Scare, including her, a Russian Jewish-born anarchist. She immigrated to the US as a teenager and worked for a time in a factory in Buffalo, NY. But had been influenced by radical ideas and soon moved to NYC, where she became active in radical politics. She was a famous writer and speaker in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century and Spoke in favor of birth control, spoke in favor of premarital sex, and even in favor of gay and lesbian rights. "I want freedom, the right to self-expression, everybody's right to beautiful, radiant things." But it was her activism against the government's draft during WWI that eventually got her deported in 1919.  She was one of about 900 who were deported.  About 4,000 others were arrested and detained.    

Ku Klux Klan

Which first appeared in the years following Reconstruction to terrorize black voters and officeholders and government officials who helped them, reappeared in the early 20^th century as group that championed “100% Americanism” and targeted Jews, Catholics, immigrants, blacks, and labor unionists in particular as enemies of American liberty. In the 1920s, had over 3 million members in the United States. This was also a product of the WWI era and the Red Scare.

Johnson- Reed Act

In 1924, congress passed a major piece of immigration restriction legislation. It limited annual immigration to 150,000 per year from Europe, based on a national quota        system. Only a certain number of people from each country allowed per year. The quota was 2% of the number of people from that country living in the US in 1890. If you will recall, large scale immigration of Italians did not begin until after this period. Some Jewish immigration but most after 1890. So this was something specifically designed to keep Southern and Eastern Europeans out. This passed with only minimal Congressional opposition and greatly reduced the numbers of immigrants entering the US annually. Immigrant groups, though they felt more pressure to Americanize, continued to live in ethnic enclaves, speak their native languages, etc. Slowed immigration. 

Sacco and Vanzetti

In Boston, police arrested two Italian immigrants who had been accused of taking part in a robbery where a security guard was killed. Nicola Sacco, a shoemaker, and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, an unskilled laborer, were anarchists. They believed that government, religion, and private property should be abolished. These beliefs were along the lines of Emma Goldman’s, and she had just been deported. Sacco and Vanzetti also believed that violence was acceptable -  believed this was class warfare and should be treated as such. But there truly was no evidence connecting these men to the crime.  One person said he saw one of the men driving the getaway car – no other eyewitness testimony confirmed this, in fact, the other eyewitnesses described someone who looked very different.  The two men believed they were being persecuted for their ethnicity and political beliefs.

“I have suffered,” Vanzetti wrote from prison.  “I have suffered because I am a radical, and indeed I am a radical.  I have suffered because I am Italian, and indeed I am Italian.”

Their trial gained little notice except among anarchists and the Italian community. However, the lengthy appeals process they went through brought the case to the attention of the nation and the world. Mass protests throughout the United States and Europe protested the death penalty sentence that continued to be upheld. An impressive array of American intellectuals, including Edna St. Vincent Millay and John Dos Passos – American authors – and Felix Frankfurter, who would later become chief justice of SCOTUS – openly demonstrated in favor of dropping the charges The state established a 3-person committee including the president of Harvard who reviewed the case and decided the verdict was fair. The two men were executed in August, 1927. This case laid bare some of the fault lines beneath American society in the 1920s. It demonstrated how long the Red Scare of the end of WWI lasted, and how much the Red Scare affected fundamental American freedoms. Also demonstrated how native-born Americans continued to view foreigners as alien, strange, scary. Even mainstream, middle-class Italians were outraged by this sentence, and groups like the Sons of Italy raised a great deal of money for the defense of S&V.  They believed that this happened because native-born Americans were strongly prejudiced against Italians.

Ella May Wiggins

 And in the early 1930s, as strikes broke out all over the country, Americans devoured plays, stories, and songs about Ella May Wiggins, a single mother in her twenties who in 1929 was murdered in broad daylight by textile company thugs during a strike in Gastonia, North Carolina.  Ella May's story is radically different in others. Wiggins worked for nine dollars a week at American Mill No. 2 in Bessemer City, NC Six 12 hour days per week.  Like Victoria Price and Ruby Bates (In Scottsboro documentary), Wiggins could not afford to live anywhere else but the black section of the city, known as Stumptown. Black neighbors watched her children for her while she worked.  When the mill proposed a reduction in pay and even longer hours, the workers reacted with disbelief and anger. Workers at a nearby mill had begun a strike, and Wiggins and other workers at American Mill spontaneously walked out and joined the strike. Communist union organizers came to the town to try to organize workers, and Wiggins quickly became involved. Wiggins quickly became known as a strong leader and was elected treasurer of the union. She wrote songs about many of the participants and aspects of the strike, setting the lyrics to traditional mountain music and traveled the areas that were on strike, singing and speaking to the striking workers. Wiggins also worked independently to organize black workers in Stumptown. When the union debated whether or not to admit black textile workers, Wiggins was the main voice that supported integration.  She believed strongly in organizing both black and white workers.  And her union – in the south in the 1920s – voted to integrate. Wiggins' radicalism was explained by her experiences as a mill worker.  Union organizers sent her to Washington, DC to testify before congress about the plight of the nation's textile workers.  The strike became increasingly violent, and the open involvement of Communists and its integrated nature made strikers a target of constant police and mob violence. She was murdered in broad daylight after she and other union members attempted to meet, and had the meeting broken up by armed guards.  More than 50 people witnessed her death, but the five men arrested for it were acquitted by a local jury within 30 minutes.  Her affiliation with the Communist Party and her support of interracial organizing – as well as the fact that she was poor, and a single mother – made many locals suspicious of her. Her 5 surviving children were sent to orphanages after her death. Her tombstone is one of the largest in the Bessemer City Cemetery, it was put up by union members and it reads “she died carrying the torch of justice."

American Communist Party

This was the first example of blacks and whites working together for civil rights since Reconstruction was          actually wrong.  But that's okay. Hundreds of thousands of textile workers, from New England to the Deep South, walked out in the late 1920s and early 1930s to protest their working conditions and demand fair wages. This was part of a wave of labor unrest that occurred in the US before and during the Depression.

Alfred Smith

In 1928, Hoover’s Democratic opponent in this race was Alfred Smith, the first Catholic ever to be nominated for President. Unlike Hoover, Smith was born in poverty in NYC. He came to political prominence through Tammany Hall, NYC’s Democratic urban machine. He was himself native-born – the son of immigrants from Ireland, but he became a de facto spokesman for immigrants and workers. After the Triangle fire of 1911, he became an ardent supporter of Progressive social legislation, and later served three terms as the governor of New York. He signed laws limiting the hours that women and children could work, and established widows’ pensions for men who were killed in industrial accidents. Also advocated to end Prohibition and denounced the post-WWI red scare. He had been denied the Democratic nomination once before, on account of nativists and Klansmen, but was able to win it in 1928. 

Pauli Murray

Forgotten/less appreciated part of the fight for civil rights, as she was earlier on the scene. Born in the South – educated mostly in the North.  In 1940, Murray and a friend were jailed in Petersburg, VA, for refusing to give up their seats on an interstate bus. They adopted tactics of nonviolent resistance that you will see later.  They drafted a Statement of Facts detailing all of the information about their arrest and informed the police that they would cooperate with all prison regulations.  The NAACP took their case and even though she lost her appeal and was convicted for refusing to give up her seat, she learned an early lesson about the importance of nonviolent resistance. Murray went on to study law at Howard University – where she was the only woman in her class. Used her knowledge of the law to begin to build legal challenges to race discrimination and sex discrimination. In the spring of 1943, she took part in what she called “sit-downs” at the Little Palace Cafeteria in DC – which denied service to blacks. She and 18 other students took empty trays and sat at tables with books and read. Eventually the owner allowed blacks to be served. Later, she tried to get advanced education in the law at Harvard, only to find that they refused to admit women.  Murray began to see sexism and racism as related forms of discrimination that both needed to be addressed. She had won a scholarship to Harvard as the top graduate from Howard.  The person ranked first in each class always received this scholarship.  Murray was the first woman to receive it and the first one not to be able to use it.  Howard arranged for her to continue her studies at UC Berkeley instead. Additionally, in this era, NAACP began to build its legal challenges to segregation – in great part because of Pauli Murray's brilliant legal analysis and her approach to ending segregation. Murray was a great influence on current SCOTUS justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg – Ginsburg            worked closely with Murray when Ginsburg was a young attorney, and greatly admires her. Murray, along with numerous other A-A women through the years, found herself frustrated with her work for both race and gender equality. Was active in CR and feminist movements – and found herself explaining to black men why women's rights mattered, and to white women why A-A rights mattered. Eventually left politics and the law entirely, became the first black woman to be ordained as an Episcopal priest, in the same church in NC where her grandmother had been baptized as a slave.

Barbra Johns

By 1951, students themselves began to question “separate but equal.” One student, Barbara Johns, in Farmville, Virginia, convinced her classmates at Moton High School to stage a strike against segregation.  She pointed out to her classmates that their school was not as good as the white school – white school had a gym, cafeteria, infirmary, locker rooms. Told them that asking for a better black school wouldn't be enough – they had to demand    integration of the schools. They did this without support of teachers, administrators, or even their parents. The NAACP visited the town during their strike and agreed to take up their cause. This became one of several lawsuits against segregation that became “Brown v. Board” in 1955. Although we call the lawsuit that desegregated schools “Brown .v Board” - that was actually only one of several integration cases that the SCOTUS took up all at once.  Included the Brown case, out of Topeka, KS, as well as the Johns case, and segregation suits from Delaware, DC, and even SC. For Johns, though, not a happy ending.  Her family was harassed and they sent her away because they feared for her life due to her activism.

Recy Taylor

In 1944, Rosa Parks traveled to her hometown of Abbeville, Alabama to aid in the case of Recy Taylor, a young black woman who was kidnapped and gang raped by a group of white men. Taylor was a young wife and mother of an infant, and she was walking home from church one Sunday evening with another woman and the woman's son. Her kidnapping was immediately reported to (white) authorities by the woman she was with. And the women knew the driver of the car and identified him.  The driver - and only the driver- paid $250 to stay out of jail.  No one else in the car arrested. The black community of Abbeville was outraged, and reached out to the NAACP. Rosa Parks, who grew up in the area, bravely traveled throughout the area questioning people with knowledge of the case, and established a defense fund to assist Taylor through the ordeal. She was known as one of the NAACP's best investigators, and was generally sent out to deal with cases of sexual assault against black women. The case was tried with no involvement of anyone in the car – never arrested, never called to testify.  Case dismissed by an all white jury within 5 minutes. After this, the case received nationwide attention, in both the black and white press. Blacks and whites alike began to compare this to life under the Nazis – remember this is during WWII. In the aftermath of this, the authorities in the area did a more thorough investigation, where they at least interviewed all the men in the car.  Four of them claimed she was a local prostitute and willing participant, while others uninvolved in the case, both white and black, testified to her character, her involvement in church, and her marriage and young child.  One man claimed no involvement. One man in the car admitted that they had been out looking for a woman and she was the first one they came across.  His account of the incident matched Taylor's. Yet, even with this testimony, a grand jury refused to issue indictments. Recy Taylor and her family lived in the area for 20 years longer, and they reported being treated badly by relatives of her attackers throughout the rest of her time there. In 2011, the Alabama House of Representatives, the City of Abbeville, AL, and the Henry County AL court system officially apologized to Taylor for their unwillingness to guarantee justice for her in this case. This happened on Mother's Day 2011, when Taylor returned to the Rock Hill Holiness Church, the church she had been walking home from that night in the 40s when she was kidnapped.  Has also been invited to take part in forums on the impact of Rosa Parks' activism.  

Indian Reorganization Act of 1934

Also called Wheeler–Howard Act,  (June 18, 1934), measure enacted by the U.S. Congress, aimed at decreasing federal control of American Indian affairs and increasing Indian self-government and responsibility. In gratitude for the Indians’ services to the country in World War I, Congress in 1924 authorized the Meriam Survey of the state of life on the reservations. The shocking conditions under the regimen established by the Dawes General Allotment Act (1887), as detailed in the Meriam report of 1928, spurred demands for reform. Many of the Meriam report’s recommendations for reform were incorporated in the Indian Reorganization Act. The act curtailed the future allotment of tribal communal lands to individuals and provided for the return of surplus lands to the tribes rather than to homesteaders. It also encouraged written constitutions and charters giving Indians the power to manage their internal affairs. Finally, funds were authorized for the establishment of a revolving credit program for tribal land purchases, for educational assistance, and for aiding tribal organization. About 160 tribes or villages adopted written constitutions under the act’s provisions. Through the revolving credit fund, many Indians improved their economic position. With the funds for purchase of land, millions of additional acres were added to the reservations. Greatly improved staffs and services were provided in health and education, with more than half of all Indian children in public school by 1950. The act awakened a wider interest in civic affairs, and Indians began asking for the franchise, which they had been technically granted in 1924. The Reorganization Act remains the basis of federal legislation concerning Indian affairs. The act’s basic aims were reinforced in the 1960s and ’70s by the further transfer of administrative responsibility for reservation services to the Indians themselves, who continued to depend on the federal government to finance those services.

The Four Freedoms

Norman Rockwell famously illustrated the Four Freedoms in 1943 – these are some of the most iconic images of the twentieth century.Translated the ideas of the Four Freedoms into instantly recognizable images.  The Four Freedoms were goals articulated by United States PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt on January 6, 1941. In an address known as the Four Freedoms speech (technically the 1941 State of the Union address), he proposed four fundamental freedoms that people "everywhere

in the world" ought to enjoy:                     1.Freedom of speech

2. Freedom from want

3. Freedom of worship

4. Freedom from fear

Upon the outbreak of WWII, this became his statement of Allied goals in the war. Said these were the rights of everyone in the world, regardless of race or creed. Allies were fighting to defend these rights. 

Pearl Harbor

Although the Nazis had been in power since 1932 and war began in Europe in 1939, the US did not enter the war until the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.  In the 1930s, most Americans (and their elected officials) supported a policy known as “isolationism.”A few prominent Americans, terrified of Communism, actually admired Hitler, especially early             in his development as a leader, before people knew about some of his racial policies. Also, in an era of depression, Americans not interested in becoming involved in European          affairs.But once Pearl Harbor attacked, attitudes changed immediately. Pearl Harbor was the first time that a foreign nation had attacked US soil since the War of 1812. It was a complete surprise. Killed over 2,000 American servicemen, and destroyed almost 200 aircraft, 8 battleships, and 10 other large ships. FDR called it “a day that will live in infamy,” and immediately asked for a declaration of war on Japan.One 'no' vote – Jeanette Rankin of Montana. The next day, Germany declared war on the US.  

Rosie the Riveter

"Double V" Plan

: New militancy prevailed during war among African-Americans.Pointing to parallels between German anti-Semitism/ US racial discrimination, Black leaders waged what they called the “Double V” campaign –Victory over Nazism abroad/ racism at home.During World War II African Americans found themselves with conflicting feelings about supporting the war effort when their own country did not offer them the freedom America was fighting for overseas.   The Double Victory - Double V - campaign, begun by the Pittsburgh Courier newspaper in 1942, helped to address this issue.  It encouraged African Americans to participate at every level in winning the war abroad, while simultaneously fighting for their civil rights at home. 

A. Phillip Randolph

In 1940, only 240 of nation's 100,000 aircraft workers black--most janitors.AA leaders demanded that government required defense contractors to hire more AA.A. Philip Randolph, head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters,Largest black labor union in countryAnnounced plans for march on Washington in summer of 1941 to get action. FDR not strong supporter of civil rights. One of the largest parts of the Democratic coalition that kept re-electing him was white Southerners.  He was not keen on supporting civil rights politically, though he and especially Eleanor supported it personally – and Eleanor did so in public. Wanted to avoid public protest/disruption of nation’s war preparations.FDR made a deal with Randolph. FDR issued Executive Order 8802, June 1941. In response, Randolph canceled march.Order prohibited "discrimination in employment of workers in defense industries or in government because of race, creed, color, or national origin"Established Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC).Federal commitment to black employment rights unprecedented but limiteddid not affect segregation in Armed Forces,FEPC could not enforce compliance with orders.Wartime developments laid groundwork for civil rights revolution of 1960s

--He organized and led the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the first predominantly black labor union. In the early civil-rights movement, Randolph led the March on Washington Movement, which convinced President Franklin D. Roosevelt to issue Executive Order 8802 in 1941, banning discrimination in the defense industries during World War II. After the war Randolph pressured President Harry S. Truman to issue Executive Order 9981 in 1948, ending segregation in the armed services.

Code Talkers

People who used obscure languages as a means of secret communication during wartime. The term is now usually associated with the United States soldiers during the world wars who used their knowledge of Native-American languages as a basis to transmit coded messages. In particular, there were approximately 400-500 Native Americans in the United States Marine Corps whose primary job was the transmission of secret tactical messages. Code talkers transmitted these messages over military telephone or radio communications nets using formal or informally developed codes built upon their native languages. Their service improved communications in terms of speed of encryption at both ends in front line operations during World War II. The name "Code Talkers" is strongly associated with bilingual Navajo speakers specially recruited during World War II by the Marines to serve in their standard communications units in the Pacific Theater. Code talking, however, was pioneered by Choctaw Indians serving in the U.S. Army during World War I. These soldiers are referred to as Choctaw code talkers.

Nisei

Need for further development of business within the Japanese community. So the issei passed their hopes and dreams for the future on to their children, who were American citizens and had more rights than they.  This group called the nisei. Because of the pattern of migration of men and women there were specific age cohorts within the community. Virtually no Japanese in America born between 1905 and 1915. Japanese organizations had different activities for these groups – churches for example had services in Japanese for the issei and English for the nisei. Nisei more “American” While they had American educations and took part in American activities within their ethnic community – most professional jobs closed to Japanese.  Nisei took menial work and sometimes returned to Japan to get jobs that were in line with their education. Hard to know what the outcome of this would have been – great deal of frustration among the nisei. But World War II came about and all Japanese in America were forced to close their businesses, leave their jobs and educations, and go to camps to be interred. Basically, they were the children born to the Japanese people in the new world (2nd generation).

Executive Order 9066

: Allowed all Japanese to be excluded from living along the Pacific Coast. This was clearly racist in motivation – no evidence that Japanese were disloyal. But – all Japanese on the west coast (so, basically, all Japanese) expelled and required to relocate to internment camps. Many of these were on Indian reservations – and the gov't compensated Indians for land use. Families allowed to stay together – but they lived in primitive conditions in barracks. Slowly, some allowed to leave.  College students could go to college. A few left and lived in the area of the camp. Many Japanese-American men and women volunteered to serve in the US Army. [Sansei – the children of the nisei – much more integrated into American society. Fewer experiences of discrimination.  More mixing with other ethnic groups. 40-50% of sansei married non-Japanese. Still interested in culture – language and art classes – but removed from experiences of their grandparents.]

GI Bill

The package of benefits offered to veterans of the war, commonly known as the GI Bill, opened the door to the middle class for an enormous number of American families. In the years following world war II, more than half of all US college students were attending             classes on the government's dime. By the mid 1950s, over 2 million vets received college degrees.  5.6 million received vocational or technical degrees. Before G.I. Bill commented one that, “I looked upon college education is likely as my owning a Rolls-Royce w/ a chauffeur.” Government financing of education made workforce best educated world in 1950s/60s. US colleges, universities, trade schools grew by leaps/bounds to accommodate flood of students, GI Bill trained nearly 1/2 million engineers/ 200,000 doctors, dentists, nurses/ 150,000 scientists, among many other professions. Better education meant higher earning power, translated into consumer spending that drove postwar econ. One observer of G.I. bill so impressed w/ its achievements that he declared it responsible for:

"most important educational/social transformation in American history."

Many of these new students would be the children of the Eastern and Southern European immigrants we discussed earlier in the class.  Changed these ethnic groups forever.  

Peyton Place

But popular culture revealed some of the other interests of the average American: Peyton Place, a 1956 novel by the wife of a small town school principal in New Hampshire, scandalized the nation and became an overnight bestseller. This novel was loosely based on some of the things the author had seen in the small New England towns where she and her husband had lived. Basically is about three women – Constance and Allison MacKenzie, a middle class mother and daughter, and Allison's best friend Selena, a girl from the other side of the tracks. In the book, Selena goes on trial for murdering her stepfather who had sexually abused her. Had secretly been given an illegal abortion by the town doctor, to whom the stepfather confessed - his admission to this freed her. Based on the real life story of a 16 year old girl in rural New Hampshire named Barbara Roberts, who killed her father who had molested her, and buried him beneath a sheep pen. Same deal with doctor, illegal abortion, etc. Hypocrisy, bigotry, class privilege recurring themes and portrayed as some of the most common          aspects of small town life. Book also includes explicit discussion of abortion, incest, oral sex, extramarital sex. The novel was banned in several cities and thousands of bookstores refused to sell it. But that just increased its appeal, and public interest in the book was huge. Millions of copies eventually sold.  The author wrote a sequel, and the story eventually turned   into a very popular movie and a television series.

Sexual Behavior in the Human Male/Human Female: Two controversial studies by Indiana University zoologist Alfred Kinsey forced questions of sexuality into open with 2 books, Sexual Behavior in Human Male in 1948, 1953's Sexual Behavior in Human Female, which sold 270,000 copies in 1st month after publication. Took scientific, rather than moralistic approach. Kinsey became known as sex doctor. He documented full range of sexual experiences of thousands of Americans. Broke numerous taboos in discussing such topics as masturbation/ orgasms/ homosexuality/ marital infidelity in detached language of science. Both studies confirmed sexual revolution, largely hidden, had begun to transform American society by early 1950s. Estimated that 85% of white men- sex prior to marriage, more than 90% masturbated, 25% of married women- sex outside of marriage by 40. Shocking to public in late 1940s/ early 1950s. Criticized by statisticians because samples not randomly selected, condemned even more frequently by religious leaders who charged him with encouraging promiscuity/adultery. Research opened national conversation w/ profound implications for the future: even if numbers were off, Kinsey helped Americans learned to talk about sex.

Johns Committee

This fear of Communists also included a fear of gays – and one of the most remarkable aspects of this part of the “pink scare” happened right here in Tallahassee.  Florida established its own “Johns Committee” which like McCarthy's HUAC was meant to hunt out suspected Communists in state government.  It was established in 1956.  It first suggested that the NAACP had been infiltrated by communists and asked for their membership lists.  Courts refused to force the NAACP to turn them over.  So, instead, the commission decided to hunt out “subversive” homosexuals.  FSU, UF, USF all targeted.  By 1959, the commission had entrapped 19 homosexuals at UF and forced them to resign.  Also expelled more than 50 gay students.  The state employed PI's to work as security guards and entrap suspected homosexuals – created a climate of fear.  One FSU professor, after losing his position, unsuccessfully attempted suicide – and only came forward to tell his story in 1991. 110 faculty dismissed after being interrogated.  300 others interrogated. The commission went on to investigate, interrogate, and fire gay public school teachers. The commission finally overreached in 1962 when it published the infamous “Purple Pamphlet.”  Meant to be a hard-hitting expose of the debauchery of gay life, it included graphic photography of sex acts, and naked photos of men and boys.  The committee sold this pamphlet for 25 cents apiece and people were outraged.  

Emmett Till

Whites and blacks across the country were shocked and outraged when Emmett Till, a black teenager from Chicago, was brutally murdered by two white men from Money, MS, while he was in the area visiting relatives. Till was killed for allegedly speaking inappropriately to a 21-year-old white woman, Carolyn Bryant, who was the wife of the owner of a grocery store where Till and some cousins went to buy candy and snacks.Although Till's mother and the rest of her family was from the area, he had been raised in the             north – Great Migration – and did not know the intricacies of Jim Crow. It is unclear exactly what happened between Till and Bryant, but Till's relatives who were with him believe he may have called Bryant “baby,” and blew her a kiss.Several days after this incident, Bryant's husband and a group of other white men appeared at the home of Ti'lls great-uncle, Moses Blakely, and demanded that they turn Till over.  He was found dead, tied to a millstone in a river, a couple of weeks later.  The two men were acquitted of the murder by an all-white jury despite the testimony of Till's great uncle, who bravely identified the two men as the killers.  Till's mother requested an open-            casket funeral, and the graphic photos of Emmett's dead body conveyed the horror of racism in the south.  (The two men later admitted to the murders when a reporter offered them money to tell their stories.)Emmett Till's mother ensured that the photograph of her son's mutilated, tortured, and partially decomposed body appeared on the cover of Jet magazine, so that people across the nation learned about his death.A few months later, African-Americans in Montgomery, Alabama, sparked a mass protest movement over segregated city buses.

Rosa Parks

On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, a seamstress at a downtown department store, was arrested for refusing to give up her seat on a city bus. This is the part that most everyone knows. She has had a long history of fearless civil rights activism. She was the secretary of the local NAACP chapter at the time of her arrest. But  – Montgomery civil rights leaders chose to organize a boycott after Parks's arrest.  They saw this as their chance to act to end segregation in Montgomery. A group of women, led by a young English professor at a local black college, stayed up all night the night of Parks's arrest, copying handbills that urged local blacks to stay off the buses on the day of her trial. The next day at a public meeting of boycott supporters, a long-term boycott of the bus company suggestedBoycotters demanded that seating be first-come, first-served, that bus drivers treat all passengers courteously – many blacks had a number of nasty run-ins with drivers even if they were never kicked off a bus – and that the bus company hire black drivers. The boycott started that Monday and lasted over a year. 

Claudette Colvin

In March, 1955, a black teenager named Claudette Colvin was arrested on a city bus in Montgomery for refusing to give up her seat.  Colvin and Parks knew one another – Colvin was active in the NAACP Youth Council, which Parks advised.  And what actually ended segregation on Montgomery buses was a lawsuit, which Colvin testified in.  But Parks was the better known defendant, and the one that NAACP leaders wanted in the spotlight, because she was older and “respectable.”  Colvin later became pregnant out of wedlock, so NAACP leaders chose not to emphasize her role.  Bad publicity for the movement.  

Little Rock Nine

:In 1957, Little Rock, Arkansas became the focal point of the nation's battle for civil rights. The Little Rock Nine were the nine African-American students involved in the desegregation of Little Rock Central High School. Their entrance into the school in 1957 sparked a nationwide crisis when Arkansas governor Orval Faubus, in defiance of a federal court order, called out the Arkansas National Guard to prevent the Nine from entering. On May 24, 1955, the Little Rock School Board adopted a plan for gradual integration, known as the Blossom Plan (also known as the Little Rock Phase Program). The plan called for desegregation to begin in the fall of 1957 at Central and filter down to the lower grades over the next six years. Under the plan, students would be permitted to transfer from any school where their race was in the minority, thus ensuring that the black schools would remain racially segregated, because many people believed that few, if any, white students would opt to attend predominantly black schools. Federal courts upheld the Blossom Plan in response to a lawsuit by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). On September 4, 1957, the Nine attempted to enter Central but were turned away by Arkansas National Guard troops called out by the governor. When Elizabeth Eckford arrived at the campus at the intersection of 14^th and Park Streets, she was confronted by an angry mob of segregationist protestors. She attempted to enter at the front of the school but was directed back out to the street by the After the Nine suffered repeated harassment—such as kicking, shoving, and name calling—the military assigned guards to escort them to classes. The guards, however, could not go everywhere with the students, and harassment continued in places such as the restrooms and locker rooms. After the 101^st Airborne soldiers returned to Ft. Campbell in November, leaving the National Guard troops in charge, segregationist students intensified their efforts to compel the Nine to leave Central. The Little Rock Nine did not have any classes together. They were not allowed to participate in extracurricular activities at Central. Nevertheless, they returned to school every day to persist in obtaining an equal education. Although all of the Nine endured verbal and physical harassment during their year at Central, Minnijean Brown was the only one to respond; she was first suspended and then expelled for retaliating against the daily torment by dropping her lunch tray with a bowl of chili on two white boys and, later, by referring to a white girl who hit her as “white trash.” Of her experience, she later said, “I just can’t take everything they throw at me without fighting back.” Brown moved to New York City and graduated from New Lincoln High School in 1959.The other eight students remained at Central until the end of the school year. On May 27, 1958, Ernest Green became Central’s first black graduate. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. attended his graduation ceremony. Green later told reporters, “It’s been an interesting year. I’ve had a course in human relations first hand.” The other eight, like their counterparts across the district, were forced to attend other schools or take correspondence classes the next year when voters opted to close all four of Little Rock’s high schools to prevent further desegregation efforts.

Sit-ins

A way of silent protesting. The best estimates suggest that nearly 70,000 people took part in sit-ins – mostly black, but a sizable group of white supporters also involved.  This tactic also won them white supporters. One white newspaper editor who was actually in support of segregation mused after observing a sit-in that the black students were polite, well-dressed, studious, and well-behaved – noted students studying literature and taking notes for a science class - while the white students harassing them were “ragtail, ragged, slack jawed”.  “It gives one pause,” the editor said. Also some support among white colleges. Demonstrators also took part without the support, initally, of major civil rights groups.  This was a youth movement. [CORE – a civil rights organization – quickly sent organizers to these cities to reinforce what the commitment to nonviolence really meant.]

John F. Kennedy

In favor of the Cold War. JFK said in campaigning that the Republicans had lost the mark and that USSR was making gains – they launched the Sputnik satellite and were taking part in missile testing. Said Republicans had caused a “missile gap” which allowed the USSR to get ahead of the US. This wasn't true and he knew it. However, it was a persuasive argument.  And Democrats presented the case that a change was needed. Kennedy and his wife Jacquelyn appeared to lots of Americans to be young and vigorous (Also not exactly true – Kennedy suffered from debilitating back pain) But – these appeared to people to be the leaders the US needed. And during the 1950s and 1960s – appearances mattered. You have probably heard about the famous televised debates between Nixon and JFK If not – these were the first televised presidential debates. Nixon and his handlers hadn't thought about what would change when people were able to see the candidates. JFK wore makeup – as did every other man who appeared on TV- But Nixon refused.  So he appeared haggard and disheveled.  The lights made him sweat.  Looked nervous and tired. JFK was younger, appeared cool and collected.  In post-debate polling, JFK won the debate among television viewers.  Nixon won among those who listened on the radio. Ultimately, out of 69 million votes cast, JFK won by about 120,000. John F. Kennedy served three years in the White House with few domestic accomplishments of note, honestly. But the administration is known today for its youthful glamour, and for dynamic leadership. Later, revelations about the sexual liaisons that the president obsessively pursued while in office did little or nothing to tarnish his legacy among Americans. To Kennedy, the Cold War was his main concern when he entered office. Although sit-ins had been going on for over a year, he made no mention of race or of segregation in his inaugural address – he saw civil rights as a distraction. Kennedy wanted to counteract the influence of Communists in the world. Established the Peace Corps, which sent young people overseas to help with programs in developing countries – this was to help the image of the US overseas. By 1966, more than 15,000 people in the Peace Corps.

Military- Industrial Complex

As Eisenhower left office in 1961, his final address to the American people addressed the “missile gap,” which he knew was a total myth.  Total science fiction.  He urged Americans to think about the dangerous power of what he called the “military-industrial complex.” By this, he meant the combination of an “immense military establishment” with a        “permanent arms industry” “We must never let the weight of this combination endanger our liberties.” But most people saw this alliance between the Defense Dept and private industry as a good source of jobs and national security rather than a threat. By the end of the 1960s, this would seem prophetic, though.  Connection between private businesses that made stuff for the military (threat). Wanted to counteract Communism. 

Fidel Castro

Led the “July 26^th movement” was the one who succeeded in overthrowing American- supported Fulgencio Batista. Castro a Jesuit-educated attorney.  Intelligent, witty, and charismatic. When he took over, most people looked forward to the implementation of the constitution that Batista had suspended, and to protections of their basic civil rights.  But instead, got Marxism. Nationalization of all of the economy. Religious leaders harassed and imprisoned. Political enemies executed – this is why Batista followers left so quickly. Censorship of media. 250,000 Cubans (in 3 years) came to US, specifically Miami (which was greatly impacted). US (except Miami) is sympathetic to refugees because they were victims of communism. This migration – first the top officials in the old regime (many of these people were very wealthy) and then others from the upper class who feared a loss of money/property/safety under the Castro regime.  By the end of this wave, middle and working class people also affected and began to leave. These people believed that they would just live in the US for a while and that the US would probably intervene successfully and install a more conservative government, and then they could return. Saw themselves as political exiles – definitely not immigrants.  U.S. a logical place for Cubans to go.  It was close, of course, but also America had been involved in Cuban economic and political life for decades.  

Operation Peter Pan

: Another aspect of this – over 14,000 unaccompanied children left Cuba and entered the United States in what is now called “Operation Pedro Pan.” Parents who could not emigrate for various reasons would send their children ahead – sometimes meeting other family, sometimes not.  Motivated by rumors that Cuba planned to send children to the Soviet Union for indoctrination, or that boys would be forced into military service.  All of this ended at the end of 1962 – Cuba halted flights to the US as a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis. 

Cuban Missile Crisis

: The most dangerous crisis of the administration, and of the entire Cold War really, occurred when in Oct, 1962, American spy planes learned that the USSR was installing missiles in Cuba that could reach the US. The reason for this isn't known.  They could have been planning an attack.  They could have been trying to help Cuba defend itself. But either way – this was intolerable to JFK. JFK chose not to attack Cuba – that would have provoked a Soviet response and probably     nuclear war.  He had advisors telling him to do this, btw. Instead he imposed a blockade on the island and demanded that the missiles be removed. Eventually Khrushchev agreed – and in return (secretly) JFK agreed to remove missiles from Turkey. But for 13 days, the world teetered on the brink of nuclear war.  This experience seemed to change Kennedy's outlook on the Cold War. He was shocked at how cavalier some of his advisors were in discussing a war that would certainly have killed tens of millions of people.  He called for more cooperation with the Soviets and signed treaties to stop nuclear weapons testing.  Also said he wanted better relations with Cuba.   

Birmingham

Until 1963, Kennedy was unwilling to say much of anything about civil rights. When young civil rights workers were being attacked and beaten, he said that enforcement was a local issue, would not get involved. (This meant that white police acted with impunity with civil rights workers). RFK approved wiretaps on MLK. Belief among many in the administration that Communist influence on civil rights movement. This was true in Florida too – remember that the Johns Commission first went after the NAACP. The events in Birmingham in May 1963 forced him to speak. In Birmingham, civil rights leaders, faced with fear and disinterest among adult A-As, began to recruit children to take part in civil rights demonstrations. The city's white police chief was basically a horrible bigot and sent fire hoses and dogs after the children who were demonstrating, and arrested hundreds of them. This was shocking and absolutely outrageous to people – not just in the US but abroad. The Soviet Union, in fact, was beginning to use situations like these in their anti-American propaganda. How can they say they are in favor of freedom and democracy when their police are attacking children who are protesting for these things? JFK began to see this perspective – the US couldn't tell people it was a beacon of freedom when   Jim Crow was still in place in the South. In June 1963 he went on national television to give his support to a bill that would ban discrimination in public accommodation. Meaning – a business or government building that serves the public can't discriminate based on race. Other groups have been added to this over the years.  He said the nation was facing a moral crisis and that it had to respond with this bill. “are we to say to the world, and much more to each other, that this is a land of the free except  for Negroes?”

Civil Rights Act

Just five days after Kennedy's assassination, LBJ asked congress to enact the civil rights bill to honor JFK. In 1964, LBJ signed the Civil Rights Act, which banned discrimination in employment, institutions like hospitals and schools, and in privately owned public accommodations, like restaurants, hotels, and theaters.  Any business open to the public. The bill also prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex. [This is an interesting story.  The NWP – a militant suffrage group – was actually still around in 1964, and one of its leaders, Alice Paul, contacted an old ally of hers, a Southern rep from Virginia who was opposed to black civil rights but in favor of (white) women's rights. Paul got him to introduce the amendment adding sex – and he did with Martha Griffiths, a liberal who supported women's rights and supported the purpose of the civil rights act. But the amendment was added because Smith and other Southern Democrats thought it would get the bill killed – it didn't.]

Great Society

After LBJ's landslide victory, he unveiled an expansion of the New Deal state – which he called the “Great Society.”  Remember – LBJ was an old New Dealer – and this was done in the model of the New Deal. He was specifically trying to address some of the limitations of the New Deal that we've already      talked about. Tried to bring programs to people who had not been eligible before. Established Medicaid and Medicare, developed the Dept. of Transportation, public            broadcasting, NEA, food stamps, other federal agencies. LBJ went on a crusade to eradicate poverty. He believed that the ND programs with his GS initiatives that completed the vision of the ND. Could create a society where poverty did not exist. Affected, like others, by a study in the early 1960s called “the other America” that showed that at least 50 million Americans still lived in abject poverty. Did not benefit from the economic growth of the last 20 years or so. This author suggested that poor people had become invisible to most Americans because they lived in rural areas or in urban slums. He thought the Great Society could help people. Focused on helping poor people to develop skills and learn how to get better jobs and more money.

Immigration and Nationality Act

There were new developments in immigration law during this period as well, as people started to question the national quota system and see it as discriminatory.  In 1965, the Johnson-Reed Act was scrapped and the Immigration and Nationality Act (Hart-Cellar Act) replaced it. Ended the national quota system entirely. Immigration based on skills that immigrants offer as well as family relationships to previous   immigrants. Immigration at the time set at 170,000 a year – no nationality quotas. Remains one of the key parts of immigration law in the US to the present. Supporters of the law, including the president, referred to the racist motivations of the previous legislation when they argued for the passage of this legislation. LBJ said "This [old] system violates the basic principle of American democracy, the principle that values and rewards each man on the basis of his merit as a man. It has been un-American in the highest sense, because it has been untrue to the faith that brought thousands to these shores even before we were a country." However, supporters also claimed that the ethnic mix of the country would not change as a result of this act. Wrong! Huge demographic shift in America  after the passage of this bill. Immigration now centered in Asia, Latin America, Africa . Also huge increase in the number of immigrants. Again – this is largely based on family – chain migration that is sparked when one family member migrates. 

This year marked the culmination of everything going on in the Sixties.  January 1968 was the Tet Offensive – a surprise attack by North Vietnam on a number of South Vietnamese cities. Militarily – this was not actually a big deal. But it made the war look bad in the eyes of the American people. LBJ had told the people that victory was just around the corner.  This – shown on American television – seemed to prove that it wasn't. People started to pay more attention to anti-war politicians.  Members of the political mainstream and many journalists began to publicly speak against the war. Edward McCarthy, an anti-war Senator from MN, vowed to run against LBJ. With an army of student volunteers, he got 40% of the vote in the NH primary. Again – LBJ continued to say that the war was about over – but by the end of the 1960s the US was still involved in Vietnam  to a great extent, and more and more people started to question the wisdom of that. In March of that year, LBJ stunned the nation by announcing on national TV that he would not seek the Dem nomination for president.  Martin Luther King Jr was beginning to look at the issue of poverty as the root cause of injustice and inequality. He was in the process of organizing a Poor People's March on Washington, which would    include both black and white people and would highlight how many people were still being left out of the Great Society.

 In April of 1968, he was in Memphis, helping sanitation workers – pretty much exclusively black men – in their strike for better pay and working conditions. When he was killed by a white assassain, the United States saw the largest outbreak of racial violence in its history. Nearly every major American city (and some not so major, like Omaha, Nebraska) saw rioting. Federal troops were called in to Washington DC to restore order. At the end of April, students at Columbia University who were protesting the U's involvement in defense research and its plans to take over a public park for a gymnasium occupied seven campus buildings. New York police removed the students, injuring hundreds of students and bystanders, some very seriously. A campus-wide strike called, and the university closed for a time.

In June, a Palestinian activist assassinated JFK's brother, RFK, who was running for the Democratic nomination as an antiwar candidate.

And in August, thousands of anti-war demonstrators converged on the Democratic National Convetnion in Chicago, and the police's brutal response to them made national news – really almost outshone the convention. 

The issues that people dealt with in the 60s mostly weren't a product of just the 60s. But in this era, divisions became more stark, issues became more polarized. More people moving into the conservative camp. Alienated by the emphasis on personal rights.  

Richard Nixon

: In the midst of this turmoil (August 1968), a surprising candidate emerged. Richard Nixon won the Republican nomination, and he campaigned claiming he represented the “silent majority” - people who were tired of the turmoil, tired of the constant drumbeat for rights that you'll hear about next week.  Nixon's election indicated the beginning of a new conservative movement that was going to push back against what they saw as the excesses of the rights revolution, as it was called.

When Nixon ran in 1968 he said he had a “secret plan” to end the war. After he was elected he revealed that he wanted S. Vietnamese troops to replace Americans in the fight. Americans would continue bombing campaigns. But this did not limit American involvement in the war or stop the antiwar movement. Which by now – as you recall – was a mass movement involving hundreds of thousands of people.  Not just hippies. He had the military invade Cambodia in order to cut off N. Vietnamese supply lines. This was unsuccessful, but led to Cambodia being taken over by the Khmer Rouge, a brutal. Communist movement that either killed or forced onto rural communes virtually the entire population of the country.  In 1969, the NY Times published information about a massacre in My Lai, a Vietnamese village where US soldiers killed more than 300 civilians.  They also began to publish government docs that showed how US involvement in Vietnam began after WWII, and how previous administrations had misled the American public about their increasing involvement in Vietnam. The SCOTUS issued a landmark freedom of the press decision when it denied the Nixon Admin's request to halt publication of the Pentagon Papers, as they were called. Early in 1973, Nixon negotiated a peace agreement that ended American involvement in the war, but kept N and S Vietnam intact. Also ended the draft – the military would be entirely volunteer after this.  The war really ended with a N Vietnamese victory in 1975 – they launched a final attack on S. Vietnam and the US did not intervene except to evacuate US citizens remaining in the country. Along with some supporters of the US – this launched a refugee exodus out of Vietnam to the US. But even this didn't go well – Americans disheartened when a plane carrying orphan children and the American women who volunteered to care for them crashed, killing hundreds of women and children. This war was a political and social disaster for the US. The only war that the US has ever “lost.” More than 58,000 US troops died, along with 3-4 million Vietnamese. The war also caused millions of Americans to question the government and military. Challenged longstanding beliefs about the country and its purposes.  When William McNamara, the chief architect behind the US strategy in the war, later             apologized for his role and admitted he had been wrong, few Americans felt any sympathy for him or accepted his apology. By the time the war ended, Nixon was no longer president.

In the 1972 election, 15 Democrats put their hats in the ring. Dem primary led to a weak candidate.  15 candidates is a good sign that the party thinks the current president is vulnerable. George Wallace – who you've heard of before – did very well in the South, winning every county in the FL Dem primary.  But his candidacy was cut short when he was paralyzed in an assassination attempt.  The night he was shot he won two primaries, but this ended his candidacy. Shirley Chisholm became the first A-A woman to run for candidacy of a major party. Patsy Mink of HI became first Asian woman. Hubert Humphrey was the establishment candidate – supported by party activists. His main challenger was George McGovern, a senator from South Dakota, who had actually taken part in changing the primary system for the Dem party just 4 years earlier.  Winner of primaries won the nomination – this is not exactly how it worked before.  Party insiders had much more of a voice in selecting the nominee.  This made them mad. McGovern had a dedicated base of support among anti-war activists, students, and other liberals. His opponent, Humphrey, said his candidacy was about “acid and abortion”. Said he was too liberal and would be rejected by the American people. McGovern won the election and immediately was mired in scandal. Americans learned that his VP nominee had been in a psychiatric hospital. McGovern replaced him, which actually hurt him among his liberal base. Many dems weren't too crazy about him. So Nixon won in the biggest landslide in US history. McGovern won in Massachusetts – that's all.  Didn't win his home state. Nixon made deep inroads into traditional democratic contitutiencies. Won huge majorities in the white South – this is when this area of the country turned republican. Very strong showing among white working class voters in the north as well. These voters have often been up for grabs after this point. So an election where the old ND coalition continued to disintegrate.  But this victory wasn't lasting.  Nixon was kind of weird.  Obsessed with secrecy, could not accept difference of opinion. He thought every critic was a threat to him and to national security. Drew up a long “enemies list” that included reporters, politicians, and celebs who were unfriendly to his administration.  When the Pentagon Papers were published, he sent a group that he called “the plumbers” to find             info on Daniel Ellsberg, the gov't employee who Nixon believed was responsible for leaking these papers. They broke into his shrink's office to try to get his records. Five campaign workers of Nixon's broke into Dem campaign headquarters in the Watergate apt building in DC. They were caught and arrested – it's unclear what they were doing there or what they were     looking for exactly. This actually played almost no role in the 72 election, but during the trials of the workers, the judge wanted to get to the bottom of who ordered them to do this. Then some journalists from the Washignton Post published a series of articles that made it clear that people close to the president had ordered the break in. This led to a Congressional investigation. Americans learned about their president's propensity for wiretapping, break-ins, and sabotaging political opponents.  When it became clear that Nixon recorded conversations in his office, he was ordered to turn those recordings over. It became clear that Nixon didn't specifically know about the Watergate thing, but that he became involved right after, including making payments to the burglars and halting an FBI investigation into the crime. In August 1974 the House committee recommended his impeachment. He became the first American president in history to resign in office. This was perhaps the most scandal ridden administration in history. His VP, Spiro Agnew, resigned after accepting bribes from a construction firm in 1973. His attorney general and two aides went to jail for their role in the Watergate scandal. Yet, he continued to maintain that he had done nothing wrong – or at least that he did nothing that other presidents hadn't also done. And although he was trying to deflect criticism – he did have a point. After this scandal, Congress began to investigate and found abuse of power in all of the administrations dating back to the Cold War. Uncovered surveillance of the civil rights movement, CIA attempts to overthrow leaders of other governments (this is how we know about some of the weird ways that JFK tried to have Castro killed!) Also showed that the FBI spied on thousands of Americans, in violation of the law. The findings of this committee led to new restrictions on FBI, CIA, and president's power.  Also strengthened the FOIA, which allowed regular citizens to request many government documents that are classified. It is how many historians do their research on the government. Liberals hated Nixon and celebrated his downfall. But they also didn't see that Watergate was really the downfall of liberalism. For a liberal society to work people have to trust that the government is basically good and is doing what is best for them. And – importantly – that individual freedoms will be protected. It was clear that the government hadn't been doing that for some time.  Watergate – and the subsequent things that we found out about our government – destroyed people's confidence in the government. This caused many Americans to begin to accept conservative arguments. That in order to protect individual freedom the government had to have limited power.  Their focus on Watergate also caused them to ignore the economic recession that began in 73 and lasted for most of the 70s – so when this occurred they had little new to offer.  

The 1970s marked the end of the economic growth that began during WWII.  Other countries were finally able to compete with the US in the world market. It was the first period in US history where we began to import more than we exported. It was a period of slow growth and high inflation. Driven mostly by high oil prices which had an impact on the world but more and more of an impact on the US as people depended on cars. Widespread shortages of gas in the early 70s and again in 1979. This led Americans to look for smaller, more fuel efficient cars. In other words, not American ones. Caused problems for American manufacturing. Stagflation was hard to understand.  It is an economic phenomena that actually should not happen, at least according to those who subscribed to the principles of the ND (which was most everyone at this time.) Government spending wasn't helping...at all.  Under the reasoning that brought the US the new deal, more government spending would mean recovery.  That simply wasn't happening. And liberals in particular were sort of hamstrung – didn't really have anything new to bring to the table. Businesses began to move industrial jobs overseas or to areas of the US with lower wages, such as the rural South and the West.