Term
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Definition
| Organized groups that attempt to influence government policy by electing their members to important government offices. |
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Term
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Definition
| Organized groups that attempt to influence elected officials and government policy. |
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Definition
| Citizens united by common interest, opposed to the rights/interests of other citizens, and/or opposed to the national interests. |
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Definition
| Political Parties or Interest Groups. Because Political Parties hold formal political power – they are probably a closer fit to the “Faction” definition than Interest Groups. |
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Term
| What is the problem with factions? |
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Definition
| Instability of government. Disregard for Public Good and Tyranny of the Majority |
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Definition
| Overruled by Republican Principles of Majority Rule |
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Definition
| Majority rules enables them to pursue private interests at expense of public good and rights of other citizens |
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Term
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Definition
| No single interest/faction can permanently dominate society. Those interests they ignore will be represented by their competitors. Success requires that each faction create a broad and inclusive coalition (which itself requires moderation). |
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Term
| Washington's Farewell Address |
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Definition
| The most dangerous manifestation of factions is “Sectionalism”. |
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Term
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Definition
Intersectional alliances organized around broad principles that focus on national rather than regional issues. Institutional mechanisms that maintain this alliance and preclude discussion of the most divisive sectional issues
i.e. Balance Rule and Balanced Tickets |
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Term
| The propensity for faction is part of our human nature |
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Definition
| Result of differences of opinion which manifest themselves in formal divisions that predispose groups to oppress each other rather than cooperate. These differences of opinion need not be substantial |
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Term
| Implication – It is our human nature to seek limited cooperation to more fully realize our interests. |
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Definition
| Whether distinctions are substantial or superficial is irrelevant – what is important is that there is a division that will allow us to pursue our private interests over common interests. |
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Term
| Most common distinction is distribution of property |
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Definition
Division between the haves and have-nots
Division between creditors and debtors
Division between different property interest |
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Term
| How to solve the problem of Factions? |
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Definition
(1) Removing the causes of faction
(a) Destroy liberty
(b) Homogenize the public
Neither option would be wise or practical
(2) Controlling the effects
We cannot count of “enlightened statesmen” to keep biases in check in favor of public good
Solutions lies in a Large Republic
i.e. In proposed Federal Constitutional framework
i.e. an institutional solution |
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Term
| Aldrich - Who Forms Parties?-“Creature of the politicians, the ambitious office seeker and officeholder.” |
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Definition
| “They have created and maintained, used or abused, reformed or ignored the political party when doing so has furthered their goals and ambitions.” |
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| Aldrich - Who Forms Parties?-Political Parties are not created by the people or those outside the system |
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Definition
| They are created by those within (“Endogenous”) |
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| Aldrich - Why Form Parties?-Parties are a vehicle by which politicians may achieve a variety of goals |
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Definition
| Fenno (1973) – Career, policy, power, prestige, etc. |
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Term
| Aldrich - Why Form Parties?-Parties are utilized if they further those goals |
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Definition
i.e. Politicians may distance themselves from the party when that party is currently unpopular
(Republicans during the 2008 General Elections)
i.e. Politicians may align themselves with the party when it is currently popular
(Republicans during 2002 Mid-term Elections) |
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Term
| Aldrich - Why Form Parties?-Parties are designed to solve problems that other institutional arrangements are incapable of resolving |
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Definition
Politicians believe that these problems cannot be solved by any other means.
Politicians believe that these problems will adversely affect their chance of winning office |
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Term
| Aldrich - Historical Context Matters-Technological Changes |
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Definition
| Today, politicians can run a campaign without party support if necessary |
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| Aldrich - Historical Context Matters-Values and Ideas (“Civil Religious Eras”) |
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Definition
| Parties and politicians are forced to operate within the cultural context of what is deemed appropriate at a given time. |
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| Aldrich - Historical Context Matters-Institutional “Path Dependency” |
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Definition
“Critical Juncture” – Choice between alternatives
Once choice is made, it becomes more difficult to reverse course and deviate from equilibrium.
i.e. Two Party System – minimizes incentives to form a third party |
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Term
| Technological Changes, Values and Ideas, and Institutional "Path Dependency" |
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Definition
| These historical contexts determines when, and in what form, parties emerge to enhance the goals of political actors |
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Term
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Definition
| “A series of problems that necessarily arise in elections and in governance make it possible for politicians to win more of what they seek to win, more often, and over a longer period by creating parties.” (28). “The historical context determines when, and in what form, these theoretical possibilities actually arise” (28) |
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Term
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Definition
| “Logic of Collective Action” |
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Term
| Problem of Collective Action: Olson-It is in your individual self-interest to attain the public good, but not to pay for it. |
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Definition
Public goods – “Jointness of supply” and “non-excludability”
Everybody assumes that someone else will pay for it and that they can “Free-Ride”
Eventually, nobody pays and the good is not produced.
Everyone loses (“Pareto Inferior” Outcome)
This becomes a bigger problem as the groups size increases. |
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Term
| Problem of Collective Action: Olson |
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Definition
| Can be overcome by either Compulsion or providing Selective Incentives |
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Term
| Problem of Collective Action Within Government (Social Choice)-Political parties are collections of individuals who act collectedly to provide public goods |
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Definition
| Hence, they face a collective action problem (individually rational decisions result in Pareto inferior outcomes – Fail to Cooperate) |
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Term
| Problem of Collective Action Within Government (Social Choice)-Achieve Cooperation – Prior Agreement |
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Definition
Institutional arrangements that provide a basis for binding commitments (Political Party)
Ensures that one player is not made to be the sucker for cooperating while the other defects.
You will win more over the long haul than if you act independently
You will gain more with a minimal coalition than a universal coalition |
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Term
| Median Voter Theorem (Black 1958) |
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Definition
| If voter preferences can be arranged on a single dimension between two alternatives – a majority option is possible |
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Term
| Problem of Collective Action in Elections-Election requires the support and mobilization of the public. |
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Definition
Requires an informed public that knows its preferences
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Requires a decision to actually vote
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How do you get your supporters to vote and contribute to your campaign (money, energy, etc) rather than “Free-Ride”? |
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Term
| Problem of Collective Action in Elections-Politicians have incentives to help public overcome these collective action problems |
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Definition
| But solutions are expensive |
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Term
| Problem of Collective Action in Elections-Political parties help defray those costs |
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Definition
Parties provide brand name which conveys information cheaply
Parties provide economies of scale to get out the vote
i.e. Candidates for different offices work together to get out the vote and defray the individual costs. |
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| Problem of Collective Action in Voting |
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Definition
| Parties help to make voting “cheaper” for public |
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Term
| Problem of Collective Action Within Government (Social Choice)-Two Solutions |
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Definition
(1) Agree to Cooperate during Action (i.e. Vote-Trading)
Problem – “Folk Theorem” – There is no guarantee that cooperation will continue to occur
(creates uncertainty)(No Trust)
(2) Agree to Cooperate ahead of time
Create Institutional arrangements that provide a basis for binding commitments (Political Party)
Ensures that one player is not made to be the sucker for cooperating while the other defects (Creates Trust)
You will win more over the long haul than if you act independently |
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Term
| Mass Party-Previously, Parties functioned almost entirely as “Parties-In-Government |
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Definition
They organized members to achieve policy goals
Tool of “Natural Aristocracy” to realize prized principles. They only modestly engaged in electoral politics |
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Term
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Definition
| Engaged the voting masses (at all levels) to secure victories on election day. Still functioned as a “Party-In-Government” but now primarily focused on appropriating the “spoils of office” to ensure continued electoral support. |
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Term
| Democratic Party was the first national, mass-based party in history |
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Definition
| 1828 was the birth of party politics |
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Term
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Definition
“Federalist” and “Jeffersonian Republicans”
“Federalists” were the first to organize, but soon began to consistently lose elections following the emergence of “Jeffersonian Republicans” |
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Term
| Collective Action Problem: Voting-Most choose to “free-ride” rather than vote |
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Definition
| Individual impact is limited and benefits of outcomes are public goods. Decision to vote largely becomes a function of the intrinsic benefits derived from voting minus the costs |
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Term
| Collective Action Problem: Voting-Political Parties lower the cost |
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Definition
Logistic-Transportation to polling sites, information on how to register and vote, etc.
Decision Making-Speeches and rallies helped a largely illiterate population become informed about the issues and candidates |
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Term
| Collective Action Problem: Voting-Political Parties increase the intrinsic benefits |
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Definition
Political campaigns and events were cheap entertainment and generated enthusiasm. Benefits derived from being identified as a party supporter
Social, Political, and Economic |
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Term
| Mass-Based Parties: Why 1828?-Technological Advances |
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Definition
| Improved transportation and communication |
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Term
| Mass-Based Parties: Why 1828?-Presidential Suffrage |
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Definition
90% of states used popular voting to choose electoral college
Rather than electors being chosen by state legislature |
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Term
| Prior Collective Action Problem-Parties can solve the collective action problem of mobilizing the electorate |
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Definition
But…they first have to solve the collective action problem of getting political actors to join the party and commit the necessary resources
Office seekers and holder
Benefit seekers who have the resources |
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Term
| Pluralism-Frymer – This ignores the electoral incentive to “capture” and ignore marginalized groups |
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Definition
Focus is on African-Americans, but this concept can be applied to others as well.
This occurs even when party competition is strong
i.e. when the incentive to incorporate minority interests should be strongest…because incorporation has potential to be a decisive factor in a close election |
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| Pluralism-Assumed that party competition ensures the representation of a variety of groups |
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Definition
| Search for electoral majority incentivizes a more inclusive and moderate politics |
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Term
| Assume that primary goal of political actors is to get elected (and goal of political parties is to get their members elected). (Downs, 1957) |
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Definition
| Policy platforms and ideology is a means to an end |
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Term
| Winner-Take-All (First-Past-The-Post) electoral structures encourage the promotion of policies which appeal to the majority |
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Definition
If voter preferences can be reduced to a single-dimension (i.e. liberal vs. conservative) then parties can most effectively achieve a plurality by appealing to the median voter
In the process parties minimize their differences but remain distinct in an effort to hold onto their electoral base at the more extreme ends of the spectrum. |
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Term
| Median voter model predicated on assumption of a single-dimension |
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Definition
| Voters are divided according to preferences regarding role of government in economy (Racial issues are not an explicit aspect of the electoral conflict) |
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Term
| Assumed that African-Americans are merely a subgroup of a larger coalition of ideologically liberal voters |
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Definition
| Their inclusion in politics actually moves the national median over to the liberal direction |
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Term
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Definition
Slavery replaced economics as the most pressing issue for the public and began to split the parties
Democrats were in power and could keep their coalition together through spoils system
Whigs were out of power and could not. |
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Term
| Post-Civil War Radical Republicans |
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Definition
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Believed that bringing Freed Slaves into their coalition would provide them with a majority
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Combination of Federal protection of “Freedmen” and disenfranchisement of Confederates created one-party rule (i.e. weak party competition) |
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Term
| Median voter appeared to shift left and radical racial policies were enacted to reflect that. |
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Definition
| similar to what happened in the civil rights era. |
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Term
| But….Median Voter didn’t really shift left… |
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Definition
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Changing the dominant issue to Race did the opposite
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Race could now be used as a divisive wedge by the minority party (Democrats) to break apart the majority coalition (Republicans) |
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Term
| Republicans realized that liberal racial agenda is the cause of their fall from dominance |
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Definition
| Similar to what happened in the post-civil rights era |
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| Shifting Median Voter-During and after Civil War |
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Definition
Republicans capitalized on New Median on Pre-Racial Dimension
Promoted Black Interests |
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Term
| Shifting Median Voter-Democratic party reacted to this by appealing to those disaffected with those policies (i.e. White Republicans who were conservative on racial issues) |
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Definition
| Median voter shifted to Post-Racial Dimension |
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Term
| Electoral Capture-Marginal Group has no real choice but to remain a constituent member of one political party. |
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Definition
The opposing party does not want them
They therefore cannot threaten their own party with defection
Party leaders can therefore ignore the interests of this minority group
Can assume that most will not abstain from voting
Can assume that most will not support a third-party candidate for fear of “wasting their vote”
Can assume that previous support of their interests will result in more positive evaluation than other party which opposed interests
Can therefore assume that they will continue to support the party as the lesser of two evils. |
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Term
| Despite our Pluralist assumptions that party competition leads to representation of all societal interests – the reality is that blacks are not represented |
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Definition
No party is competing for their vote
In many cases, both parties advocate policies that operate to their detriment |
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Term
| “Support from black voters is not perceived by strategic actors as merely an addition to a party’s existing electoral count, but as an entire alteration of the makeup of both parties’ coalitions” |
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Definition
Primacy of white swing voters’ perceived hostility to black interests creates a power imbalance
Black political leaders wield less influence than other groups with similar characteristics
i.e. size, finances, geographic concentration, ideology, etc. |
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Term
| Why would opposing party not want this minority group?-Believe that the inclusion of this group in their coalition and advocacy of their interests as part of the platform will alienate their existing members who can then defect to other side. |
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Definition
Parties seek to appeal to as many groups as necessary to achieve electoral victory but no more
Will not reach out to a group of voters if their numbers are less than what would be lost as a result of this inclusion. |
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Term
| Why would opposing party not want this minority group?-Opposing party would prefer to maintain electoral conflict centered on racial divisions |
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Definition
| They are able to divide the opposition on this issue |
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Term
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Definition
Party Competition was virtually non-existent
Democratic Party could not compete in the north because of its association with the confederacy
Democratic Party in the south either did not participate in electoral politics or could not as punishment for rebellion
Republican Party dominated
“Radical Republicans” led the party |
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Term
| Post Civil-War Context-Andrew Johnson was Lincoln’s running mate in his second election |
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Definition
Lincoln’s strongest supporters were “Radical Republicans” who saw the advocacy of Black civil and political rights as a winning strategy
Johnson was a southerner selected to even out the ticket |
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| Post Civil-War Context-After Civil War |
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Definition
Radical Republicans pushed Reconstruction programs to protect blacks and institute a powerful electoral presence in the south
Johnson pushed back with more conciliatory policies towards the confederacy and attempts to undermine these policies.
Interparty conflict over electoral strategy |
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Term
| Goals of our Founders-Recognized that Articles of Confederation had major deficiencies |
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Definition
| Inability to act in a unified way to achieve national interests. |
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| Goals of our Founders-Shay's Rebellion was final straw |
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Definition
Illustrated the weakness of state and federal governments
Illustrated the dangers of “excessive democracy” |
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| Goals of our Founders-Needed a capable federal government that could pursue national interest |
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Definition
Limited in its ability to violate rights and liberties of citizens
That could limit the dangers of “excessive democracy” |
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Term
| Goals of our Founders-Democracy was necessary to achieve and maintain liberty |
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Definition
| But democracy of the many could interfere with the liberty of the few |
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Term
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Definition
| Constitution contained a series of institutional mechanisms aimed to minimize these dangers |
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Term
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Definition
Variety of ad hoc legislative compromises ensured that there was a rough balance between the number of free and slave states
Resulted in Southern Senatorial Veto
Effective but not certain
Required unity of Southern Senators
Required support from either the Vice President or President
Vice-President could break tie in Senate
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(Veto House Actions)
President could veto legislation all together |
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Term
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Definition
To ensure veto potential, both parties presented voters with balanced tickets
i.e. Northern and Southern Politicians running for President and Vice-President
This was not a “Guarantee” of a veto – but rather a symbolic affirmation of the commitments to intersectional alliances and moderation
Republican Party broke this trend with a non-southern ticket in 1856 and 1860
Lincoln returned to balanced ticket in 1864 (Andrew Johnson) |
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