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- Artist: Niobid Painter
- Title: Kalyx Krater
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Late Archaic to Classical, Greece
- Analysis: The Kalyx Krater is an example of the red-figure painting technique. Unlike the black-figure painting of the past, this type of painting allowed for freer painting and increased naturalism. Thus the increased realism concerning the characters portrayed. In addition, there are some elements of landscape on the krater, such as rudimentary tress and sloping terrain. This piece also makes use of vertical position, with the insinuation that the higher up the form, the farther away it is. |
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- Artist: Unknown
- Title: New York Kouros
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Archaic Greece, Greece
- Analysis: Early Greek artists were largely influenced by Egyptian technique and convention. This male nude sculpture, called a Kouros, maintains the standard Egyptian frontal pose, along with the extended leg and rigid arms. This sculpture is, however, carved completely in the round, with obvious attention to anatomy. While the body does make some attempts at naturalism, the hair is still very stylized. One of the most notable aspects of the statue is its “Archaic smile,” a rather disconcerting attempt at natural facial expression. |
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- Artist: Polykleitos
- Title: Spear Bearer (Doryphoros)
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Classical Greece, Greece
- Analysis: The Spear Bearer was created by the artist Polykleitos to establish his “Canon.” It represents a series of proportions that related the body parts to each other and to the whole, in order to achieve perfect beauty in the human form. The Spear Bearer is very convincing in its realism, possessing a sense of organic animation, yet it is simultaneously idealized. This figure also makes use of contrapposto, further increasing the realism of the form. Like many Greek sculptures, the original sculpture has not survived. The image shown here is actually a roman copy crafted in marble, thus necessitating the structural supports. |
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Definition
- Artist: Iktinos, Kallikrates, and Phidias
- Title: The Parthenon
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Classical Greece, Greece
- Analysis: The Parthenon was designed by architects Iktinos and Kallikrates, while Phidias supervised the sculptural decorations. The structure was a temple to Athena, celebrating her aspect as a virgin goddess. It is a Doric temple, with the exterior pillars and frieze designed in this style. Inside the treasury, however, featured four Ionic columns. In addition to this there existed a second frieze on the top of the inner wall, this time in the continuous Ionic fashion. What is truly remarkable about this structure is actually its “imperfection.” There are no straight lines on this structure. Instead, lines that look like horizontals actually curve upwards toward the middle, correcting the tendency of the human eye to perceive long horizontals as curing downwards. Thus the Parthenon utilized strategic imperfection so that it would appear as perfection. |
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- Artist: Praxiteles
- Title: Aphrodite of Kindos
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Late Classical Greece, Greece
- Analysis: The sculptor of this piece, Praxiteles, was known for his celebration of the female nude. This, his most famous statue, exemplifies his “Praxitelean curve,” a gentle S-shape that appears both natural and beautiful. In fact, it was with this work that the female entered the canon of beauty in Greek art. Like the Spear Bearer, this statue is exceedingly realistic in form, yet still idealized. This statue portrays Aphrodite emerging from the bath, with left hand picking up her clothes while the gesture of her right implies modesty. Like many Greek sculptures, the original has not survived. The image shown here is actually a roman copy crafted in marble, thus necessitating the structural supports. |
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- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Laocoon and His Two Sons
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Hellenistic Greece, Greece
- Analysis: Unlike Classical sculpture, Hellenistic work express a great interest in the melodramatic. The restraint and serenity of Classical works is abandoned, instead we are presented with contorted figures and dramatic counterbalancing, with characters expressing pain and struggle. While the sculpture displays even greater realism than seen in the past, the idealism had clearly begun to fade. Like many Greek sculptures, the original has not survived. The image shown here is actually a roman copy crafted in marble. |
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- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Capitoline Wolf
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Etruscan, Etruria
- Analysis: This bronze sculpture was created using the lost-wax method. It depicts Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome, nursing from the she-wolf who, according to legend, raised them. The image of a wolf nursing Romulus and Remus remains the symbol of Rome today. This Etruscan sculpture pays careful attention to the muscle and bone lying under both the animal’s skin and the infants, creating rather realistic anatomy, yet also includes patches of stylized hair reminiscent of Archaic Greek sculpture. |
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Apollo of Veii
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Etruscan, Veii
- Analysis: Terra-cotta, from which this statue was formed, was a favorite Etruscan sculptural material. Modeled while still wet, the entire figure had to be fired at once, a very difficult feat. Apollo is depicted life sized in this piece and is quite reminiscent of Archaic Greek sculpture, featuring the “Archaic smile” and many stylized elements such as the hair and robes. These stylizations were, however, coupled with the more organic chest and legs. Unlike the Greeks, this sculpture is clothed, and takes a much more active pose, characteristic of the forcefulness of early Etruscan art. This piece originally decorated the roof of a temple. |
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- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Sarcophagus
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Etruscan, Cerveteri
- Analysis: This painted terra-cotta sarcophagus is an example of Etruscan funerary art. The figures, a man and wife, lie relaxed and intimate, presenting an impression of sociable dinner companions. There is elegance in the curves and soft areas of their bodies, along with their drapery, yet this contrasts against their stylized hair and Archaic smile. Additionally, there is no sense of proper skeletal structure, as the form of the bodies seems to almost stop suddenly at the waist, and then stretch out to the side. |
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- Artist: Unknown
- Title: The Great Wall of China
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Neolithic to First Empire, China
- Analysis: Extending over 1,500 miles, the Great Wall required the work of over 700,000 laborers. While the project was started at an earlier time, Emperor Qin ordered its reconstruction and completion as another means of unifying the country. It discouraged invasion along the boarders. This structure, along with the accompanying attitude, contributed to China’s cultural insulation, allowing very little interaction with the rest of the world. |
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Term
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: The Colosseum
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Roman, Rome
- Analysis: Built of the Roman’s superior concrete, this great amphitheater was designed to hold the legendary gladiatorial games and other sports. Bricks covered the exterior of the structure, while the inside featured marble. Much of this has disappeared, however. It was a very flexible creation that could be flooded for sea battles or covered by a giant sunroof. To facilitate the movement of large numbers of people, corridors were created with barrel vaults and groin vaults. In the exterior design, round arches are used repeatedly, as well as, starting at the bottom, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders of columns all engaged to the structure. To carry the viewer’s eye upwards, the surface of the outer wall becomes flatter as it rises. |
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Pont Du Gard
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Roman, France
- Analysis: In order to bring fresh water to their cities, the Romans built extensive aqueducts such as the Pont du Gard. This particular structure was commissioned by Marcus Agrippa and brought water from a natural spring 30 miles away. To move the liquid, the aqueduct maintains a constant decline of 1 to 3,000. It was constructed in three tiers, each with narrow barrel vaults. As the vaults are arranged in a continuous series side by side, the lateral thrust of each vault is counteracted by its neighbor so that only the end vaults need buttressing. |
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- Artist: Unknown
- Title: The Pantheon
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Roman, Rome
- Analysis: The Pantheon is the most monumental ancient Roman temple, featuring a traditional rectangular portico and a huge concrete rotunda. Massive granite Corinthian columns support the portico, while the rotunda is faced with brick. The structure was actually built by Hadrian, however Agrippa’s name was later placed on the pediment. Inside the building, light is let in by the oculus in the center dome. The light cast by the oculus was supposed to remind visitors of the symbolic equation between the sun and the eye of Jupiter. The inside of the dome also features five coffered bands (recessed rectangles in the ceiling) that were once painted and are designed to reduce the weight of the structure, also giving the optical illusion of greater height. |
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Term
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Trajan’s Column
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Roman, Rome
- Analysis: Trajan’s column was erected in honor of emperor Trajan’s victories against the Dacians, a people wealthy with gold. It is reminiscent of other phallic imagery dating all the way back to Egypt. Constructed of marble drums joined together, the shaft is covered with a continuous low-relief spiral frieze depicting Roman history. It is over 625 feet long, and contains around 2,500 figures. Originally, a gilded bronze statue of Trajan stood at the top of the column, however a statue of Saint Peter has since replaced it. |
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Term
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Arch of Titus
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Roman, Rome
- Analysis: The Arch of Titus was constructed to commemorate Titus’s capture of Jerusalem and suppression of a Jewish rebellion. Its columns are of the Composite Order, combining both the Ionic and Corinthian. On the spandrels, winged Victories are depicted holding laurel wreathes. Reliefs on either side of the piers (supports) show scenes of Titus’s triumphs, while on the center of the vault Titus is carried into heaven on the back of an eagle. On the inner wall, his soldiers are shown carrying off booty from Jewish wars, including a menorah, an item important to the Jews. |
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Term
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Augustus of Prima Porta
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Roman, Rome
- Analysis: In this statue, emperor Augustus is portrayed as both orator and general. Even though the head is a likeness, it is still idealized. The iconography of this statue emphasizes the power of Rome embodied in Augustus as emperor. By his right leg, Cupid rides a dolphin and serves as a reminder that Augustus traced his lineage to Aeneas and was descended from the gods. One of the little reliefs carved on his armor depicts Mother Earth with a cornucopia, referring to the emperor’s identification with the land as a source of plenty and Rome’s divine dominion over the earth. The back of the statue is unfinished, indicating that it was intended for a niche. The fact that he is barefoot may be either a reference to his divinization or to indicate that the statue occupied a private space. |
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Term
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Frescos at the Villa of the Mysteries
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Roman, Pompeii
- Analysis: This mural painting, a Second Style fresco, was executed in in buon fresco but with small amounts of wax added to increase the surface shine. The durability of this technique, plus the cover of volcanic ash from Mt. Vesuvius, has allowed these murals to survive. The vivid red background of this Mural is known as Pompeian red and contributes to the dynamic and dramatic quality of the scenes. In regards to the figures depicted, the artists command of three-dimensional space and of human anatomy points to the influence of the Hellenistic style. Above the realistic figures, there is an intricate meander pattern imitating real marble grain. Although the exact meaning of these scenes is unknown, it is clear a sacred ritual is taking place. |
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Zebu Stamp
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Indus Valley Civilization, Mohenjo Daro
- Analysis: This seal features a zebu standing in a square field. Unlike Mesopotamian seals, Indus Valley seals were carved in relief so that their stamped images were indented. The animal’s stylized beard and thin, curved horns have a linear quality, while a sense of natural bulk is conveyed through the body. Once again, bull imagery is back. |
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Standing Buddha
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Kushan Period, Afghanistan/Pakistan
- Analysis: This depiction of Buddha shows him wearing a monk’s robe, the deeply carved rhythmically curving folds recalling depictions of togas in Roman sculpture. The organic quality of the statue, with its rounded abdomen, is descended from the indigenous artistic tradition of the prana-filled nude male torso from Harappa. Many of the identifying physical features of this Buddha are traditional, alluding to his role as a spiritual rule, such as the elongated earlobes, the earrings given up in Siddhartha’s spiritual quest. The hair of the statue conforms to the head and is formed into the ushnisha, denoting the Buddha’s great wisdom. The circle behind his head is large halo or sun disk. Formal unity in the figure is derived from the many repeated curves and circles. |
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Term
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: West wall of Dura Europos/Moses Giving Water to the Twelve Tribes
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Early Christian, Syria
- Analysis: This is a wall of a synagogue, upon which there are three levels of Old Testament scenes and figures arranged horizontally, interrupted by a Torah niche. Below the narrative scenes there is a row of more emblematic imagery and panels of painted imitation stone. In one panel, Moses Giving Water to the Twelve Tribes of Israel, each tribe is represented as a single figure with upraised arms standing at the entrance to a tent. These are called orant figures, and symbolize the act of seeking God and praying to him. Above the well in the center, there is the menorah framed by a Corinthian portico. Moses himself is a combination of a bearded Old Testament figure and a Roman statesman. He wears a toga, and there is a slight suggestion of contrapposto in the folds of his drapery. |
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Christ as the Good Shepherd
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Early Christian, Rome
- Analysis: This depiction of Christ is a fresco found in the catacomb of Priscilla. Christ is shown carrying a goat, around him standing another goat, a sheep, and a tree on either side. A bird perches on each tree. The motif of the Good Shepherd¬–originally popular in Roman garden statuary–was assimilated by Early Christian artists as a symbol of compassion. |
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Saint Paul Outside the Walls
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Early Christian, Rome
- Analysis: Built to the Roman basilica plan, this Early Christian church is lined with Corinthian columns separate the nave from the aisles. Above these columns there is featured round arches and clerestory windows. At the end of the building, there is a large chancel arch supported by Ionic columns. The ceiling is lined with coffers, while the inside of the chancel arch contains rich mosaic decoration. The entire structure’s extensive use of gold contributes to the impressive effect of the interior. |
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Term
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: San Vitale
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Justinian and Byzantine style, Ravenna
- Analysis: San Vitale, commissioned by bishop Ecclesius, is the city’s most important early Byzantine church. The exterior is face with plain brick, unbroken except by buttresses and windows. This structure is an example of a centrally planned building. It has three levels¬–ground, gallery, and clerestory–that all have arched windows that admit light into the church. The interior of San Vitale is richly decorated with mosaics and marble, illuminated by natural light. The building also features a vaulted choir ceiling divided into four curved triangles. Each of these triangles is decorated with elaborate floral and animal designs, while at the center a circular wreath frames a haloed lamb, symbolizing Christ as the Lamb of God. In addition, the Christian motif of the vinescroll is used repeatedly in San Vitale. |
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- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Court of Justinian
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Justinian and Byzantine style, Ravenna
- Analysis: This mosaic is feature in the apse of San Vitale. It portrays Justinian standing side-by-side with other members of the clergy, including bishop Maximian. The scene also depicts court officials and the military guard, showing that the army protects Justinian’s position. The gold background removes the scene from nature, transporting the viewer into a spiritual realm. It is interesting to note that the mosaic presents Justinian with a halo around his head, an honor normally reserved only for saints or the divine. |
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Definition
- Artist: Anthemius and Isidoros
- Title: Hagia Sophia
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Justinian and Byzantine style, Constantinople (now Istanbull)
- Analysis: The basilica of Hagia Sophia is the architectural masterpiece of Justinian’s reign. To create it, Justinian commissioned two Greek mathematicians. They were familiar with the work of Archimedes, and were particularly intrigued by the geometry of circles and curved architecture, an interest reflected in form of the Hagia Sophia. The design combines the elements of the basilica with enormous rising vaults. Instead of placing the dome on a drum, it rests on pendentives–four triangular segments with concave sides. These provide transition from the square building to the round base of the dome. The dome is made of a single layer of brick, with forty small windows at the base each flanked by a small buttress. Arcades and other windows pierce the structure at many points, creating an overwhelming impression of light and space. Inside the building, arches are supported by large columns with intricately patterned capitals. Much of the imagery was modified when the Turks captured Constantinople, including the structural addition of four tall minarets (towers). |
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Joseph Interpreting Dreams in Prision
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Justinian and Byzantine style, Vienna
- Analysis: This picture is from the Vienna Genesis, one of the earliest codices to illustrate scenes from the Bible. Each sheet of the codex is purple, pointing to an imperial patron, while the gold and silver script is characteristically Byzantine. Most of the pages contain text, pushing the images to the lower section. In this scene, the sparse trees show that a landscape was used as a way of setting a scene and conveying a sense of place. To the right, Potiphar’s wife talks with the guard, her modest dress disguising her lust for Joseph. Inside the prison, Joseph is shown interpreting the dreams of the butler and baker. |
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Pantokrator from Monreale
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Byzantine style, Sicily
- Analysis: This mosaic can be found in the abbey church of Monreale outside Palermo, Sicily. It is a powerful image of Christ’s dominion over the universe. His huge figure fills the upper part of the apse and towers over the enthroned Virgin. The harsh modeling and emphasis on surface patterns–the swirling designs in the face, hair, and neck, as well as the angular drapery folds–enhance the stern character of Christ. The function of such an image is to inspire awe and to command obedience, penance, and faith. |
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Definition
- Artist: Andrei Rublev
- Title: Old Testament Trinity
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: Byzantine style, Russia
- Analysis: This painting depicts the three angels who appeared to Sarah and Abraham in Genesis. Despite the damage done to the piece over the years, it is still notable for its rich color and elegant flowing curves. |
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Chaitya Hall at Karli
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: 1st – 7th century, India
- Analysis: Chaitya halls were remarkably similar in both architectural design and religious purpose to later Christian basilicas. Like a basilica, this Chaitya hall features a triple entrance and a long, central nave with a semicircular apse at the far end, as well as rows of columns separating the nave from the side aisles. In the Chaitya, however, these columns continue around the apse to form an ambulatory, replicating the Buddhist’s circular path of reincarnation. The hall is also preceded by a shallow space, or veranda, similar to the narthex of a basilica. Additionally, like a basilica’s crypt, the apse of the Chaitya hall contains a stupa, the funerary structure originally placed over the remains of Buddha. Instead of the flat ceiling of a basilica, however, this hall is barrel-vaulted, associating the form with organic structure. |
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Definition
- Artist: Unknown
- Title: Preaching Buddha
- Period/Culture + Geographical location: 1st – 7th century, India
- Analysis: Carved in high relief from Chunar sandstone, this Gupta figure exemplifies a new type of Buddha image. Its iconography reflects the evolution of a canon for depictions of Buddhist figures, creating a synthesis of iconic and narrative imagery. The figure is severe and still, with the body folded into a yogic meditation pose. The hand gestures symbolize the setting in motion of the Wheel of Law. Additionally, the sculpture features the elongated earlobes that were already part of Buddha’s iconography in the Kushan period. On the back of the throne, two wined lions are carved, symbolizing royalty. The Halo behind Buddha is decorated with lotus motifs and is flanked by celestial beings. |
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