Term
earthquakes represent a buildup of stress in the ____ (layer of earth) |
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Definition
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Term
planar breaks in rock along which there is displacement of one side relative to the other |
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Definition
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Term
when movement along faults occurs gradually and smoothly -- rarely causes damage |
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Definition
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Term
earthquake (seismic slip) |
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Definition
when the stress of the earth moving exceeds the rupture strength of the rock and a sudden movement occurs |
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Term
when rocks snap back to their previous dimensions after sudden displacement (earthquake) |
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Definition
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Term
point on a fault at which the first movement or break occurs during an earthquake |
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Definition
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Term
deep-focus earthquakes have focal depths over __km |
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Definition
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Term
the point on the earth's surface directly above the focus |
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Definition
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Term
deep-focus earthquakes are concentrated in ___ zones. why? |
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Definition
subduction - because the deeper earth is more elastic and fluid |
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Term
when an earthquake occurs, it releases the stored up energy in ____ |
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Definition
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Term
P and S waves are ___ waves |
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Definition
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Term
__ waves are compression waves |
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Definition
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Term
__ waves are shear waves, involving side to side motion |
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Definition
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Term
____ waves are similar to surface waves on water because they cause rocks and soil to be displaced so that the ground ripples |
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Definition
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Term
most damage from earthquakes is caused by ___ waves |
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Definition
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Term
seismographs detect the epicenter using __ waves |
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Definition
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Term
P waves are known as ___ waves and S as ___ waves why? |
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Definition
primary, secondary - bc the P wave arrives before the S |
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Term
the amount of ground motion is related to the ___ of the earthquake |
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Definition
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Term
___ is a better measurement of relative energy release of an earthquake bc it takes into account the area of the break on the surface, the displacement along the fault, and the strenght of the rock. |
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Definition
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Term
measure of an earthquake's effects on humans and surface structure |
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Definition
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Term
most commonly used intensity scale in the US |
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Definition
modified Mercalli intensity scale - 1-12 intensities |
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Term
seismic sea waves caused by an undersea or near-shore earthquake |
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Definition
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Term
dormant, quiescent sections of otherwise active fault zones |
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Definition
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Term
implications of seismic gaps |
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Definition
represent "locked" sections of faults along which normal slipping is prevented... often represent spots of future, serious earthquakes |
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Term
things that happen or rock properties that change prior to an earthquake |
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Definition
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Term
because earthquake predicting is not a refined science yet, the US tends to rely more on ____ |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
the idea that major earthquakes occur at more or less regular intervals and follow a cycle along a fault segment that includes a period of stress buildup, sudden fault rupture in a major earthquake, a period of aftershocks, then another extended period of stress buildup |
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Term
magma is typically generated at what 3 plate-tectonic settings? |
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Definition
at divergent plate boundaries (ocean ridges and continental rift zones), over subduction zones, at 'hot spots' |
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Term
isolated areas of volcanic activity that are not associated with current plate boundaries |
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Definition
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Term
magma that is rich in iron and magnesium is referred to as ___. silica-rich magma is referred to as ___. |
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Definition
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Term
__ forms new sea floor and is caused |
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Definition
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Term
what kind of magma is more explosive? |
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Definition
silica-rich (felsic) because it tends to trap gases -- whereas mafic tends to let gases flow through |
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Term
The Pacific "ring of fire" is so seismically/volcanically active because ..? |
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Definition
it is a ring of subduction zones |
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Term
Kilimanjaro is associated with ____ zones |
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Definition
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Term
volcanic rock is ___ rock formed where? |
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Definition
igneous rock formed at or near the earth's surface |
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Term
most volcanic rock is created by ____. |
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Definition
seafloor spreading ridges |
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Term
the eruption of magma out of a crack in the lithosphere, rather than from a single pipe or vent... happens at spreading ridges |
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Definition
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Term
mafic basaltic lavas build volcanoes that are flat and low in relation to their diameter... this is called |
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Definition
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Term
the hawaiian volcanoes are ___ volcanoes |
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Definition
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Term
rhyolitic and andesitic lavas tend to build __ ]because of their thick, viscous nature. example of one of these? |
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Definition
volcanic domes - mt. st. helens |
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Term
bits of violently erupted volcanic material |
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Definition
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Term
when pyroclastics fall close to the place where they fell near the mouth of the volcano, these form |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
blobs of liquid lava that are thrown from a volcano during an eruption |
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Term
volcanoes that erupt some pyroclastics, then some lava, then more pyroclastics, and so on are called ____ because they are built up of varying layers. |
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Definition
composite volcanoes or stratovolcanoes |
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Term
the cascade range in the western US, including my. st. helens are ___ volcanoes |
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Definition
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Term
How did the Icelandic island of Heimaey fight back against it's volcanic eruption? |
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Definition
they ran metal pipes with cool water in front of the lava flow so that the lava cooled and solidified and thus stopped further flow |
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Term
volcanic "mud" formed by the combination of volcanic ash with water |
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Definition
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Term
denser-than-air mixture of hot gases and fine ash forms a hot ____, AKA ____. |
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Definition
pyroclastic flow - nuees ardentes |
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Term
when large quantities of water (often seawater on volcanic islands) seep down into the rock and are heated to steam by the hot magma, and then burst forth out of the volcano |
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Definition
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Term
most famous phreatic explosion |
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Definition
Krakatoa in Indonesia (1883) |
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Term
3 categories of volcanoes based on their activity |
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Definition
active, dormant, or extinct |
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Term
an enlarged volcanic summit crater, which may be formed by either an explosion enlarging an existing crater or by collapse of a volcano after a magma chamber within has emptied |
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Definition
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Term
biofuels are primarily made from ____ |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
lessens dependence on oil, good for the economy (creates jobs), renewable resource, cleaner burning, disaggregated (not as many middlemen) |
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Term
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Definition
instability ("bad years" for corn), land pressure (soil erosion, deforestation), water needs, price, crop displacement (everyone can't grow corn), transformational costs (turning corn into ethanol), more ethanol per mile needed than gas |
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Term
2 other ways to make ehtanol (than corn) |
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Definition
algae, sugar cane, cellulosic material ("throw away" parts of plants) |
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Term
the ultimate source of energy is? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
wind, biofuel, hydropower, fossil fuels, geothermal power, tidal power, solar power |
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Term
4 types of consumed energy |
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Definition
electricity, heat, gas, oil |
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Term
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Definition
plastic from petroleum, light, transportation, work |
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Term
___ is the country that uses the most energy. ____ is the country that uses the most energy per capita. |
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Definition
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Term
the total oil in the world is about ____ barrels. The total recoverable oil is about ____ barrels. The proven oil is about ____ barrels. Already consumed ___ barrels. |
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Definition
4 trillion, 2 trillion, 1.3 trillion, 0.8 trillion |
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Term
we have about ___ years left of oil at this point and this consumption |
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Definition
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Term
why is natural gas being favored over oil and coal? how much of our total energy is natural gas? |
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Definition
it releases less CO2 - 25% |
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Term
___ is made up of large accumulations of terrestrial plant material (lignin) buried into the waterlogged soil. The organic remains then gradually turn into ___, porous brown organic material, which contains about __% carbon |
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Definition
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Term
peat, lignite, bituminous, and anthracite coal have increasing/decreasing carbon contents in that order |
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Definition
increasing (peat is about 50%, anthracite about 90%) |
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Term
What country has the largest coal reserves? |
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Definition
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Term
What area has the largest oil reserves? |
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Definition
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Term
the fuel in oil shale is ____, which is organic materials in various stages of degradation. How is oil shale produced? |
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Definition
kerogen -- must first be crushed then heated to distill out the hydrocarbons, which can then be refined to crude oil |
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Term
___ are sedimentary rock containing a very thick, semi-solid, tar-like petroleum. |
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Definition
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Term
the oil reserves in the ANWR give us about how much oil in the US? (Barrels and time) |
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Definition
3.2 Billion barrels -- 1 year |
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Term
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Definition
good lightbulbs, insulation, eliminating "standby" of electronics, transportation efficiency, etc |
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Term
solar energy, in general, is about __% efficient |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
wood, compressed organics, peat, ethanol, biofuel |
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Term
how is wind power proportional to velocity? |
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Definition
power is the cube of velocity (double wind speed, 8x as much power) |
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Term
UV_ makes vitamin D. UV_ is considered the most damaging. UV_ is entirely absorbed before it reaches earth. |
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Definition
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Term
strength of UV radiation is directly related to ____. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
climate change is due to shifting of energy into its ___ expression and thereby changing the _____ balance. |
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Definition
temperature, thermodynamic |
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Term
in general, it gets colder as we move further into the atmosphere away from the earth's surface with the exception of the _____. this is becaus? |
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Definition
thermosphere - because it absorbs UVC |
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Term
deserts are created at about 30 degrees N&S latitudes due to _____ |
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Definition
Hadley cells - trap air low against the earth |
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Term
how does the ITCZ create a positive feedback system? |
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Definition
Itertropical Convergence Zone - low pressure heats up air and causes it to expand and rise, this creates a vacuum that pulls air in from the side and back out the top |
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Term
evaporation releases/uses energy. condensation releases/uses energy. |
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Definition
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Term
heat associated with phase change of water |
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Definition
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Term
energy for wind comes from? |
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Definition
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Term
why do winds at beaches change direction during the day from night? |
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Definition
the water stays about the same temp and the temp of the land changes -- during the day, the land is warmer and wind blows out to the ocean, reverse at night |
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Term
"merry go round effect" caused by the coriolis effect |
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Definition
like trying to throw a ball to someone standing in the middle of a merry go round -- the middle (equator) goes faster than the outside (higher latitudes) |
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Term
the coriolis effect makes the northern hemisphere bend left/right |
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Definition
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Term
key points about the coriolis effect |
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Definition
wind is created by pressure differences, there is a difference in ground speed at different latitudes |
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Term
Winter: the ITCZ bends over __ and lags over ___. |
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Definition
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Term
in a low/high pressure system, heating at the surface causes water to heat and rise |
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Definition
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Term
air tends to flow from areas of ___ pressure to areas of ___ pressure |
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Definition
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Term
what creates the monsoons in india in july? |
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Definition
ITCZ is over india but the large mountain range forces air upward which creates huge thunderstorms |
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Term
preindustrial CO2 concentration and current |
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Definition
preindustrial: 280, now: 390ppm |
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Term
___ is the essence of climate change. why? |
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Definition
resonance due to the frequency of thermal energy in the air that resonates with CO2 and transfers energy to it |
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Term
CO2 concentrations increase with ____ |
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Definition
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Term
Things that cause global cooling |
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Definition
biomass burning, sulfate aerosols, aircraft contrails, stratospheric ozone |
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Term
a slow moving river that goes through all oceans and brings warm salty water from the tropics to the extratropics -- makes ireland warmer than it should be |
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Definition
thermohaline (ex: gulf stream) |
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Term
main reason for current rising sea levels |
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Definition
thermal expansion of water |
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Term
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Definition
energy is contained in al the stuff we use - paper, food, etc - it takes energy to cut down a tree and make it into paper and then ship it to the store |
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Term
___ tons of carbon emissions per year |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
countries agreed to reduce emissions on average 5% below their 1990 level by 2010 |
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Term
framework convention on climate change |
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Definition
defined the problem of GHG in the atmosphere - almost every country signed it, but not everyone did something about it. established differential responsibility. 1994 |
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Term
mid-oceanic ridge formed by rocks separating the ocean - one side is america, the other is europe |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
oceanic plate slides under land and melts then bubbles up and is released via volcanoes -- created san andreas fault |
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Term
most fatal earthquakes are a combination of what 3 things? |
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Definition
strength of earthquake, number of people in the area, quality of structures in the area |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
layers of the earth - out to in |
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Definition
crust, upper mantle, asthenosphere, outer core, inner core |
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Term
the lithosphere is made up of what layers? |
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Definition
uppermost mantle and crust |
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Term
there are how many major plates in the earth? |
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Definition
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Term
a subduction zone "ate" the mid-ocean ridge in the pacific NW US and resulted in the strike slip san andreas fault |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
earthquake in ocean 60 mi offshore set off tsunami for over 10 hours and struck 12 countries, 150,000 killed |
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Term
characteristics of earthquakes that generate tsunamis |
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Definition
epicenter underneath or near the ocean, fault that causes vertical movement of the sea floor over a large area, magnitude over 7.5 and focus under 70km |
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Term
3 general appearances of a tsunami wave |
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Definition
fast-rising tide, cresting wave, step=like change in water level that advances rapidly |
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Term
how does global warming effect arctic animal populations |
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Definition
ice sheets melt, krill that eat algae off them die, whales and penguins that eat krill die also |
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Term
___ circulate air in the troposphere to constantly redistribute air around the world |
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Definition
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Term
4 layers of the atmosphere (ground up) |
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Definition
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
surfaces that reflect light have low/high albedo |
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Definition
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Term
energy that is released by the earth to the atmosphere |
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Definition
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Term
the greenhouse effect is created by ___ energy |
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Definition
terrestrial -- lets light through but traps heat |
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Term
large convection currents that distribute heat globally |
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Definition
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Term
high/low pressure = rising air |
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Definition
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Term
areas of frequent low/high pressure tend to get the most rain |
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Definition
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Term
hurricane-force winds at the top of the troposphere that circle the earth |
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Definition
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Term
regular seasonal winds and rain |
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Definition
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Term
wherever the sun shines most/least brightly is where the strongest convection currents, rainfall, and storms are |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
cold air displaces warmer air and moves under it - generates strong convection currents and thus strong storms |
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Term
which is caused by the coriolis effect: hurricanes or tornadoes? |
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Definition
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Term
how do we get knowledge about climate patterns throughout history |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
periodic changes in the earths orbit and tilt - cause dramatic climate swings |
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Term
___ happens every 3-5 years when ocean temperatures rise. ___ happens in the intervening years |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
el nino southern oscillation - overall cycle of el nino and la nina |
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Term
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Definition
dryer areas tend to get more rain, wetter areas are dryer |
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Term
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Definition
CO2, CH4, CFCs, N2O and SF6 |
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Term
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Definition
more CO2 helps plants fluorish, warmer temps = longer growing seasons, stronger storms = less drought |
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Term
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Definition
increase in sea level (more floods), stronger storms/hurricanes, increase in infectious disease due to more bugs, release of methane hydrate from melting permafrost |
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Term
Carbon enrichment studies - FACE |
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Definition
free air carbon enrichment - plants do better with more carbon |
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Term
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Definition
natural gas instead of coal, promote energy efficiency, raise gas taxes, nuclear power, wind energy |
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Term
carbon management strategies |
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Definition
plant trees, phytoplankton, crop rotation, collect methane for energy, reduce soot emissions, pump CO2 into deep oceans |
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Term
energy sources that formed from the remains of once-living organisms |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
oil, natural gas, coal, oil shale, tar sand |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
fossil fuels take at least ___ years to form and are thus nonrenewable |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
accumulations of fossil fuels that can be gotten with current technology |
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Term
fossil fuels are really only found in land that is made up of ___ rock |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
recovery using no technology other than drilling |
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Term
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Definition
pumping in water to fill pore spaces and buoy up the oil by increasing pressure |
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Term
between primary and secondary recovery, we are able to recover about how much of the oil in a given well? |
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Definition
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Term
alternatives natural gas sources |
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Definition
coal-bed methane (methane gas produced by coal formation), geopressurized zones (deep in the earth, increased temp and pressure change oil to gas that is absorbed into the underground water), methane hydrates (crystalline solids of gas and water molecules found in the arctic and oceans) |
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Term
pattern of US energy consumption |
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Definition
flattened in 70s and 80s, rose in 90s, flattening again |
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Term
___ is an energy source formed from the remains of land plants |
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Definition
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Term
hard/soft coal has highest carbon content and is thus most desirable as fuel |
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Definition
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Term
environmental impact of coal - produces ___ when burned |
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Definition
CO2 -- also releases sulfur which can cause acid rain |
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Term
what is the most commonly used ion for fission |
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Definition
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Term
most uranium is found in ___ rock |
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Definition
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Term
a material that slows neutrons running through the core of a nuclear reactor enough that a chain reaction can be sustained |
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Definition
moderator -- US is water, Chernobyl was graphite |
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Term
___ is the process by which the sun makes energy |
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Definition
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Term
gasohol and it's limitations |
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Definition
90% gas, 10% alcohol -- normal cars can't run on greater than 10% alcohol |
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Term
sulfur dioxide is primarily emitted by |
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Definition
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Term
a temperature inversion can do what 3 things |
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Definition
decrease vertical mixing, increase photochemical smog, lessen visibility |
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Term
unpolluted air has a pH of about |
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Definition
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Term
the US clean air act was first passed in |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
aerosols, catalytic converters, rubber production |
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Term
pollutants that do not go through a smokestack |
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Definition
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Term
which criteria pollutant has not declined since 1970 |
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Definition
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Term
why are the world's deserts located at 30 degrees N&S latitudes? |
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Definition
large scale sinking air occurs in these regions |
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Term
nitrogen and oxygen make up whta percent of background air in the atmosphere? |
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Definition
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Term
what is primarily responsible for the current and projected rise in global mean temperature? |
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Definition
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Term
a surface with high albedo will do which: appear dark, reflect energy, destory ozone |
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Definition
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Term
what direction does the wind curve in the Southern hemi? and why? |
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Definition
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Term
largest overall contribution to golbal warming is |
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Definition
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Term
3 processes that form clouds |
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Definition
heating at the planet's surface, condensation of water vapor, expansion of rising air |
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Term
how many modes of variation are present in milankovitch cycles? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
organization of petroleum-exporting countries |
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Term
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Definition
petroleum, natural gas, coal |
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Term
the largest proven reserves of natural gas are in |
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Definition
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Term
___ solar heating typically requires few or no moving parts, uses direct sunlight, combines sunlight with a storage medium |
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Definition
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Term
photovoltaic solar energy uses ___ radiation to generate ____. |
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Definition
shortwave radiation to generate electrical current |
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