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| new office established by the French monarchy that employed individuals to collect taxes on begalf of the monarch |
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| in the fourteenth century, Swiss mercenary infantrymen lined up in a phalanx of 6,000 men and used their pikes to kill aristocratic horsemen, but by the end of the century, gunpowder further eroded the dominance of the mounted knight and made feudal castles far easier to conquer. The rising cost of warfare, most particularly the need to provide for an army on an annual (as opposed to occasional) basis, played into the hands of the developing monarchial state, which alone could tap into the necessary resources. England was the exception, since it did not establish a permanent army until the end of the seventeenth century when it was firmly undre parliamentary control. |
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| (1454); had provided for a balance of power among the major Italian city-states; alliance between long-term enemies Milan and Naples; support of Florence; all combine to protect against outside powers; ended in 1490 |
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| became despost in Milan in 1490; initiated hostilites with Naples; 1494 invited French into Italy; realized his mistake by 1498 and joined anti-French Italian alliance that expelled French and restored Medici |
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| King of France in 1490s; enterd Italy at Ludovico il Moro's request; crossed into Florence |
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| (1452-1498); led the Florentine population in expelling the Medici rulers; established puritanical state; Medici came back into power and burnt him at the stake |
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| a wealthy banking family that ruled Florence in the fifteenth century; expelled by Savonarola; came back into power and burned him at the sttake |
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| wrote "The Prince) 1513; happily served Forentine Republic as a diplomat and official in the chancellery; when the Republic was overthrown by the Medici, Machiavelli was exiled to his country estate; genuinely horrified by increasing foreign domination of the Italian peninsula; believed that only a strong ruler using potentially ruthless means could unify Italy and expel the foreigners |
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| (1513) by Machiavelli; is a résumé of sorts in which Machiavelli tried to convince the Medici to partake of his services |
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| King of Aragon, married Isabella in 1496 |
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| Queen of Castile; married Ferdinand in 1496 |
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| consolidation of the Spanish peninsula under the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella; final stage in 1492 conquered Granada (last Islamic outpost in Spain); 1492 also marks beginning of a new wave of religious bigotry |
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| ardently Catholic Gerdinant and Isabella demanded religious uniformity in their lands and formally expelled the Jewish population that had been living in Spain since the time of the Roman Empire; Jews and Moors who converted were hounded |
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| Charles V, the Holy Roman Empire (as relating to Spain) |
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| grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella; controlled a vast empire that dominated Europe in the first half of the sixteenth century; Spanish possessions were the primary source of his wealth and supplied him with tough Castilian foot soldiers (best in Europe); in 1556, because he was exhausted from his struggles to destroy Protestantism in the Holy Roman Empire, he abdicated the Habsburg lands of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary and the title of Holy Roman Emperor to brother Ferdinand (whom he disliked intensely) and the valuable Spanish empire as well as southern Italy and the Netherlands to his own son Philip |
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| grandson of Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain; brother of Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor); when Charles abdicated, received the troublesome eastern Habsburg lands of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, as well as teh title of Holy Roman Emperor |
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| (r. 1556-1598); son of Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor); great-grandson of Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain; when Charles abdicated, recieved the more valuable part of the empire: Spain and its vast holdings in the New World, along with southern Italy and the Netherlands; gained vast wealth from the New World's silver mines; spent most of his reign in debt because he used his riches to maintain Spanish influence; caught in a quagmire when he attempted to put down a Calvinist revolt in the Netherlands in 1568, after he had tried to impose upon them the doctrines of the Council of Trent; in 1609, conceded virtual independence to the northern provinces of the Netherlands (while still maintaining control over the southern part of the country); in 1648, formally acknowledged northern Netherlands independence |
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| 1571; Spanish won over the Ottoman Empire; fight over supremacy in the Mediterranean |
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| Duke of Alva's Council of Troubles ("Council of Blood") |
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| failed inquisition-based effort by Philip to try to restore Spanish control of the Netherlands |
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| military hero who tried and failed to restore Spanish control over the Netherlands |
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| Philip launced it in 1588 as an attempt to conquer England, which, under Queen Elizabeth's rule, was aiding the Dutch rebels |
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| (1547-1616); possibly Spain's greatest writer; wrote "Don Quixote," which bemoans the passing of the traditional values of chivalry in Spain |
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| by Cervantes (1547-1616); bemoans the passing of the traditional values of chivalry in Spain |
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| (1541-1614); remarkable Greek-born Spanish painter; his magnificant yet somber works reveal much about a Spain that appeared to have it all, only to find that it could not maintain its preeminent European positin |
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| one of the factors that led to a decline in Spain's power by the end ot the seventeenth century; (the other factors were constant wars and the economic collapse of the Castilian economy |
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| 1356; by Emperor Charles IV; gave seven German princes the right to select a Holy Roman Empire; made it clear that the emperor held office by election rather than hereditary right; the electors usually chose weak rulers who would not stand in the way of their own political ambitions |
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| ruler of the Palatinate, so also one of the seven electors of the Holy Roman Empire; converted to Calvinism in 1559, which created a problem because the Peace of Augsburg did not recognize Calvinism |
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| (1618-1648); in 1617, Ferdinand of Styria, an avid Catholic, was crowned King of Bohemia; most Bohemians were Protestant; Ferdinand was intolerant; in May 1618, a large group of Bohemian Protestant nobles surrounded two of Ferdinand's Catholic advisors and threw them out of a window (the second Defenestration of Prague); Matthias, the Holy Roman Emperor died, so King Ferdinand of Bohemia(his cousin) was elected Emperor; rebles in Bohemia deposed him and elected Frederick, the Calvinist Elector of the Palatinate as their king; Ferdinand of Styria got military support from the Duke of Bavaria in return for the electoral right enjoyed by the Palatinate; in the Battle of White Mountain, Bavarian forces won a major victory; Frederick called Winter King, since he held the throne for only that winter; by 1622, Frederick had lost Bohemia and the Palatinate; war continued because private armies wanted to keep fighting to earn a living, outside Protestants--such as the King of Denmark--became involved, both Catholic and Protestant rulers thought that giving the Palatinate's electoral vote to Bavaria was an attack on "German liberties," Emperor Ferdinand confiscated defeated Protestants princes' lands in the North, and Ferdinand solicited the help of Albrecht von Walenstein |
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| modern-day Czech Republic; in 1617, Ferdinand of Styria, an avid Catholic, was crowned King; most Bohemians were Protesant |
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| second Defenestration of Prague |
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| in May 1618, a large group of Bohemian Protestant nobles surrounded two of King Ferdinand III's Catholic advisors and threw them out of a window |
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| during Thirty Years' War; Ferdinand of Styria got military support from the Duke of Bavaria in return for the electoral right enjoyed by the Palatinate; Bavarian forces won a major victory; Frederick called Winter King, since he held the throne for only that winter |
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| promised to create a vast mercenary army for Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand; by 1628, controlled an army of 125,000 and had won a series of major victories in the north; in 1633, murdered on Emperor Ferdinand's orders, since Ferdinand began to fear that his Wallenstein was negotiating with his opponents |
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| 1629; outlawed Calvinism in the empire and required Lutherans to turn over all property seized since 1552: 16 bishiprics, 28 cities and towns, and 155 monasteries and convents |
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| king of Sweden; entered the Thirty Years War in 1629; claimed that he became involved to defend Protestant rights in Germany, but was also interested in German territory along the Baltic; rolled back the Habsburgs until 1632, when Adolphus died in batle |
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| France's chief minister; concerned about the increase of Habsburg strength in Germany; financially supported the Swedish army during the Thirty Years War |
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| 1648; ended the Thirty Years War; Holy Roman Empire maintained its numerous political divisions; Emperor remained an ineffectual force within German politics; reaffirmed the Augsburg formula of each prince deciding the religion of his own territory, although the new formula now fully recognized Calvinism |
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| sixteenth-century king of France |
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| (1562-1598); series of civil wars; ostensibly concerned with religious ideals; part of a long tradition in which the aristocracy and monarchy battled one another for supremacy; in 1562, the Duke of Guise was infuriated to see a group of Huguenots worshipping in a barn and had them killed; ten years of combat; both Duke of Guise and Prince of Conde were killed; Henry of Navarre (Protestant) married King Charles IX's sister (Catholic); St. Barthomlomew's Day Massacre; 1574, Henry III turned to the Huguenots to defeat the powerful Catholic League that the Guise family had formed to serve their interestsl; 1589 Henry of Navarre became King Henry IV, converted to Catholicism; 1598 Edict of Nantes |
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| French monarch; died in 1559 when his eye was pierced with a lnce in a jousting accident while celebrating the end of the wars between the Habsburgs and the French Valois monarchs; preceded by Francis I; son, Francis II, took over at age 15 |
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| took French throne at age 15 after father Henry II's 1559 death; dominated by his mother, Catherine de Mecici; replaced the next year by his brother, Charles IX |
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| (r. 1560-1574); took over French kingship from his brother, Francis II; succeeded by his other brother, Henry III; dominated by his mother, Catherince de Medici |
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| (r. 1574-1589); took over French kingship from his brother, Charles IX; dominated by his mother, Catherine de Medici; last of the Valois kings; made Henry of Navarre his heir; assassinated in 1589 |
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| wife of Henry II; mother of Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III; dominated all three sons' reigns |
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| the most powerful of the three French aristocratic families engaged in the power struggle; turned toward a military, reactionary form of Catholicism |
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| leader of the Montmorency family |
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| one of the three French aristocratic families engaged in the power struggle; converted to Calvinism, partly through religious convictions and partly out of political opportunism |
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| leader of the Bourbon family |
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| one of the three French aristocratic families engaged in the power struggle; converted to Calvinism, partly through religious convictions and partly out of political opportunism |
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| a young Bourbon prince; married King Charles IX's sister; in 1589 became King Henry IV |
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| St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre |
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| occured when the cream of the Huguenot aristocracy gathered in Paris in 1572 to celebrate the marriabe of Henry of Navarre to King Charles IX's sister; Catherine de Medici encouraged Charles to set it in motion; 3,000 died in Paris; 2,000 Huguenots in total were killed in organized attacks throughout France; Admiral Coligny was killed; Henry of Navarre was saved when he promised to return to Catholicism |
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| 1589 to French Revolution; began with Henry of Navarre becoming King Henry IV |
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| the idea of putting the interests of France before the goal of religious unity; began when Henry IV switched permanently to Catholicism with the words: "Paris is worth a Mass." |
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| 1598; by King Henry IV; granted Huguenots freedom of worship and assembly as well as the right to maintain fortified towns for their protection |
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| king of France from 1589 to 1610; converted to Catholicism; issued Edict of Nantes in 1598; worked to revilalize his kingdom: established government commodities over a number of key commodities (such as salt) to restore the finances of the monarchy, limited the power of the French nobility by reining in its influence over regional parliaments; succeeded by his 9-year-old son Lous XIII |
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| finance minister for Henry IV |
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| took French throne at age 9 after father's assassinating in 1610; found strong minister in Cardinal Richelieu; died in 1643; succeeded by 5-year-old Louis XIV |
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| Louis XIII's minister; defeated the Huguenots and took away many of the military and political privileges granted them by the Edict of Nantes; brought France into the Thirty Years War on the side of the Protestants to counter the Spanish Habsburgs; died in 1842 |
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| took French throne after Louis XIII died in 1642; son of Ann of Austria, who selected Cardinal Mazarin as his regent; had to flee from Paris during the Fronde; after Mazarin's death, decided to rule without a chief minister; employed Divine Right philosophy; believed that no political or religious authority existed, either within or beyond the borders of France, that had any riht to encroach on his sovereignty; touted religious unity as a means of enhancing royal absolutisml in 1685, revoked tihe Edict of Nantes, demolished Huguenot churches and schools and took away their civil rights; involved France in a series of wars as a means to satiate his desire for territorial expansion, was successfuly at the beginning when France conquered tarritories in Germany and Flanders, success ended in 1688 when William of Orange became English King; after 1688, another series of wars erupted that lasted for 25 years, including the War of Spanish Succession |
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| selected by Ann of Austria to be Louis XIV's regent; less sure politically than Richelieu; grappled with the Fronde; died in 1661 |
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| series of French rebellions between 1649 and 1652 |
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| the notion that the monarch enjoyed certain divine rights; developing in France since the sixteenth century; supported by Old Testament examples |
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| Louis XIV's chief political philosopher; used Old Testament examples of divinely appointed monarchy to support Louis XIV's divine right; wrote that since the king was chosen by God, only God was fit to judge the behavior king, not parliamentary bodies or angry nobles |
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| location of Louis XIV's palace; 12 miles outside of Paris; housed 10,000 noblemen and officials; 1,400 fountains |
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| Louis XIV's most important minister; son of a draper; centralized the French economy by instituting mercantilism; organized factories to produce porcelains and other luxury items; tried to abolish internal tariffs; created the Five Great Farms; helped create France's vast overseas empire: by 1680s, trading posts in India, slave-trading centers on the west coast of Africa; |
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| the central goal is to build up the nation's supply of gold by exporting goods to other lands and earning gold from their sale; relies on foreign colonies to buy the mother country's exports |
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| large, custom-free regions of France; created by Jean-Baptise Colbert |
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| French East India Company |
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| created by Colbert to compete with the Dutch; limited success because of excessive government control and a lack of interest in such venues by the French elite |
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| leader of the Netherlands; became King of England in 168l committed to waging total war against Louix XIV |
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| War of Spanish Succession |
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| 1702-1713; between the French and the English and Dutch allies; concluded with the Treaty of Utrecht |
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| ended the War of Spanish Succession in 1713; left a Bourbon (Louis XIV's grandson) on the throne of Spain but forbade the same monarch from ruling both Spain and France |
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| French national parliament; met for the last time in the seventeenth century in 1614 |
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| fifteenth century; inaccurate accounts in the plays of Shakespeare; series of civil wars to determine which aristocratic faction, York or Lancaster, would dominate the monarchy; junior member of the Lancastrian family, Henry Tudor (Henry VII), won central authority in England when he established the Tudor dynasty following his defeat of Richard III in 1485 at the battle of Bosworth Field |
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| junior member of the Lancastrian family; won central authority in England when he established the Tudor dynasty following his defeat of Richard III in 1485 at the battle of Bosworth Field; died in 1509 |
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| became king of England folowing the death of his father in 1509; restored royal authorityl created a small but efficient bureaucracy which made the king's will known throughout the land; beleived that his sovereignty would not be manifest so long as England was under the religious leadership of the papacy; in 1534 made a political, not religious, decision when he broke with Rome and created the Church of England; excellent political instincts; knew how to select able ministers who would serve the crown with distinction; children Edward VI, Mary Tudor, and Elizabeth Tudor reigned afterwards |
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| Queen Elizabeth (Expansion and Monarchial) |
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| (r. 1558-1603); daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn; intelligent; educated in the Italian humanist program of classical studies; diligent worker; excellent political instincts; knew how to select able ministers who would serve the crown with distinction; always kept herself as the ultimate decision maker in the land; used the prospect of marriage as a diplomatic tool and allowed almost every single ruler in Europe to imagine that he could possibly marry her--a powerful way to build alliances whenever the need arose; remained single, which kept the Catholic Mary Stuart, the ruler of Scotland, as her legal heir; for years, Mary lived as Elizabeth's prisoner--Elizabeth treated Mary as the rightful ruler of Scotland and the probably heir to the English crown, though she kept her under houes arrest becaues she feared that Mary was intriguing against her |
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| 1586; Elizabeth entered into a defenive alliance with Scotland: she recognized James, Mary's son who was being raised as a Protestant, as the lawful king; gave him an English pension; and, while she never specifically said so, let it be known that James was the heir to her throne |
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| Mary Stuart; Queen of Scotland; Catholic; Elizabeth's prisoner for many years; plotted with Philip II of Spain; executed by Elizbeth in 1587 |
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James VI of Scotland
aka James I of England |
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| (r. 1603-1625); believed in divine right; three-part program: unite England with Scotland, create a continental-style standing army, set up a new system of royal finance; not popular with Parliament |
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| radical Calvinist Protestants; wanted to see the church "purified" of all traces of Calvinism |
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| (r. 1625-1641); supported Arminians; used his wife's dowry to fund a failed military expedition against Spain; forced loans from his wealthier subjects, and threw refusers in jail; ultimately ruined his powerful position by insisting that Calvinist Scotland adopt not only the Episcopal structure of the Church of England, but also follow a prayer book based on the English "Book of Common Prayer"; executed in 1649 by Oliver Cromwell |
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| Dutch theologian of early 17th century who favored free will over predestination |
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| wing of the Anglican Church that believed in free will; not pro-Catholic; refused to deny that Catholics were Christians; advocated a more ornate church service |
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| Arminian; in 1633, named Archbishop of Canterbury by Charles I |
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| 1628 by Parliament; included provisions that king could not demand a loan without the consent of Parliament; prohibited individuals from being imprisoned without published cause; prohibited government from housing soldiers and sailors in private homes without the owner's permission; outlawed using martial law against civilians; Charles I refused to sign |
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| Charles I's chief minister; murdered in August 1628 by embittered sailor who blamed him for England's recent military disasters |
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one of the leaders of the House of Commons; in March 1629, proposed three solutions to the issue of prerogative rights:
1. High churchmen and anyone suspected of popery (practicing Catholicism) should be branded as capital enemies of the state
2. Any of the king's advisors who recommended that he raise funds without Parliament's approval should be tried as capital enemies of the state
3. Anyone who paid tonnage and poundage, which the King was still illegally collecting, would be betraying the "liberties of England." |
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| 1620-1640; Charles I governed England without calling parliament |
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| Scots signed it in 1637; pledged their allegiance to the king but also vawed to resist all changes to their church |
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| met for 3 weeks in 1640; refused to grant funds prior to Charles addressing its own grievances |
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| met for 20 years, beginning in 1640; House of Commons launched it by impeaching Charles I's two chief ministers, the Earl of Strafford and Archbishop Laud; (strafford was executed in 1641 and Laud in 1645); abolished prerogative courts; limited some of the king's prerogative rights; supported Grand Remonstrance; demanded that king name ministers whom Parliament could trust; demanded that a synod of the Chruch of England be called to reform the Church of England |
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| Charles I's equilvalent to Henry VIII's Court of Star Chamber; tools of royal absolutism |
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| list of 204 parliamentary grievances from the past decade (in 1640) |
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| created by Oliver Cromwell; regularly paid, disciplined force with extremely dedicted Puritan soldiers |
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| began January 1642 when Charles I left London to raise his royal standard at Nottingham, after failing to seize five of the leaders of the House of Commons; ended in 1648, when the New Model Army defeated the king's army; in 1649, Cromwell executed Charles I |
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| England's so-called republic from 1649-1660, that was actually a military dictatorship under the leadership of Cromwell |
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| wanted a state church, but were willing to grant a measure of religious freedom for others (although Catholics were to be excluded from this tolerant policy); included Cromwell |
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| wanted a state church that would not allow dissent |
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| radical faction in the New Model Army; combined their radical religious beliefs with a call for a complete overhaul of English society; radical idea that all men, not just property-owners, should vote for members of the House of Commons |
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| "Instrument of Government" |
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| written by a group of army officers during 1653; only written constitution in English history; provided for republican government (the Protectorate) with a head of state holding the title Lord Protector and a parliament based on a fairly wide male suffrage |
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| (r. 1653-1658); defeated Charles I with his New Model Army in 1652; military dictator of England; took the title of Lord Protector in 1653; in 1655, divided England into 12 military districts, each to be governed by a major general |
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| (r. 1660-1685); eldest son of Charles I; succeeded Cromwell; succeeded by James II (his younger brother) |
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| (r. 1685-1688); succeeded Charles II (his elder brother); Catholic; repealed Test Act; issued a Declaration of Independence |
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| in England, barred Catholics from serving as royal officials or in hte military |
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| Declaration of Independence |
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| issued by James II of England; suspended all religious tests for office holders and allowed for freedom of worship |
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| the Stadholder of the Netherlands; husband of Mary, daughter of James II; invited by English Protestants in 1688 to invade England; took the throne |
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| bloodless throne turn-over from James II to William and Mary |
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| 1689; part 1 of English constitutional settlement; forbade the use of royal prerogative rights; outlawed Catholic monarchy |
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| 1689; part 2 of English constitutional settlement; granted the right of public worship to Protestant conconformists but did not extend it to Unitarians or Catholics |
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| 1689; part 3 of English constitutional settlement; authorized the use of civil law to govern the army, which previously had been governed only by royal decree; Parliament had to be summoned annually to renew this act |
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| 1701; part 4 of English constitutional settlement; prevented Catholic Stuart line from occupying English throne |
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| 1707; political unification of England and Scotland, forming the entity known as Great Britain; Scotland gave up its parliament but was allowed to maintain the state-sponsored Presbyterian Chruch and its Roman-based legal system |
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| English monarchial succession |
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Definition
Henry VIII (r. 1509-1546)
Edward VI (r. 1547-1553)
Mary ("Bloody Mary") (r. 1553-1558)
Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603)
James I (r. 1603-1625)
Charles I (r. 1625-1641)
Cromwell (r. 1653-1658)
Charles II (r. 1660-1685)
James II (r. 1685-1688)
William of Orange and Mary (r. 1688-1714)
George I (r. 1714-1727) |
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| Dutch War for Independence |
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| sacked the Spanish city of Antwerp in 1576 |
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| founded in early part of 17th century; issued its own currency; increased the amount of available capital; made Amsterdam the banking center of Europe |
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| established in 1602; under quasi-government control; funded by both public and private investment |
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| Golden Age of the Netherlands |
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| commercially and economically successful due to trade; high standard of living; wealth more evenly distributed than in any other place in Europe; tolerant attitude towards religious minorities; artists painted for private collectors, who supported an incredibly large number of painters and a wide range of styles |
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| source of executive power in the Netherlands; family members had achievved prominence for leading the revolt against Spain; male head of the family held title of standholder, an office with primarily a military function |
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| (c. 1580-1666); great Dutch portrait painter from Haarlem |
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| (1632-1675); gifted Dutch painter; originally painted historical scenes, but received no commissions; turned to the carefully composed genre scenes of everyday Dutch life, for which he became justifiably famous |
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| (1606-1669); greatest genius of the Dutch golden age; paintings influenced by High Baroque; paintings are fraught with a deep emotional complexity; one of his masterpieces, "The Night Watch" (1642), transforms a standard group portrait of a military company into a revealing psychological study |
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| the significant increase in prices in the Early Modern period, due perhaps to the influx of precious metals from the New World and the population growth that put pressure on the prices of basic commodities |
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| in England, wealthy individuals located socially below the aristocracy, who began to buy significant amounts of newly valuable landholdings |
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| fencing-in of land for personal use, when the land had previously been availalbe for the grazing of animals from the entire community |
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| provided for the destitute; first one was instituted during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I |
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| crops were rotated across three pieces of land; used in the north of Europe |
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| crops were rotated across two pieces of land; used in the Mediterranean region |
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| began to dominate the urban economy during the High Middle Ages; continued to play a role in the production of commodities until the time of the French Revolution |
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| a new group of people who enabled cloth production on a much larger scale by providing the money and the organizational skills, which they used to direct every stage of the production of broad cloth, beginning with the cleaning of the wool and ending with the weaving; the stages took place in rural households |
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| oldest male child inherited most of the estate, with younger sons being guided towards careers in the church, military, or in the increased opportunities offered by the burgeoning administration of the Early Modern state |
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| portion of the parental estate that daughters would receive upon marriage |
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