words that stand for nouns

pronominal

first, second, and third person and singular and plural

I, we

you, you

he she it, they

inflected form of nouns and pronouns indicating ownership, personal pronouns and nouns (determiners)

my, mine

our, ours

your, yours

his, his

her, hers

its

their, theirs

nouns don't have this

pronouns in object slots

me, us, you, him, her, it, them

formed by adding -self or -selves to a form of personal pronouns (both singular and plural)

myself, ourselves

yourself, yourselves

himself herself itself, themselves

serves as determiners or as objects referring to previous nouns

each other (generally 2 nouns)

one another (3 or more nouns)

indicate number and proximity

this, that, these, those

introduce clauses that modify the nouns that are the antecedents of these pronouns

who, which, that

whose (possessive), whom (objective)

infinite referents, add -ever to end of pronoun

whoever, whosever, whomever, whatever

question words that produce information questions

who (whose, whom), which, what

determiners

enough, few, fewer

many, much, several

all, both, every

either, neither, none

1: system of rules in our heads

2: formal description of rules

3: linguistic etiquette

modifies verbs (one word)

answers time, place, reason, manner questions

determiner that signals noun

a, an, the

endings:

-s, '-s for nouns

-s, -ing, -ed, -en for verbs

-er, -est for adverbs

completes a sentence

DO, IO, SC, OC : complete verb

connects 2 sentences/structures within sentence as equals

and, but, or, nor, for, yet

2 part conjunction that expressess relationship between coordinated structures

either-or, neither-nor, both-and, not only-but also

Direct Object

DO

Indirect Object

IO

nominal slot flollowing verb, recipient or thing that receives action

to, for can be inserted before verb

Object Complement

OC

attitude of probability designated by modal auxiliaries

could, should, would, may, might

stand-in auxiliary do to verb string that has no other auxiliary

interrogative, negative, emphatic

(transformations all require auxiliaries)

auxiliary "be" and "have" contribute to this

action in progress or completed

-ing + be =progressive

-en + have =perfect (action completed before present moment)

ability to take different positions in a sentence

time is generally movable, place is sometimes

dependent clause introduced by subordinating conjunction

since, it, because, when, although

morpheme that cannot stand alone as a word

(most affixes, some bases)

1: a sentence can be rewritten as, or consists of, a noun phrase and a verb phrase

2: the one requirement of the noun phrase is the noun, but we can add a determiner, an adjective, or a prepositional phrase as well

3: the auxiliary and the verb are required for the verb phrase, but we can also ad the complement and adverbial

4: the auxiliary requires a tense and may also have a modal, have + -en, or be + -ing

5: the complement will be either an adjective or a noun phrase

6: the adverbial will be either an adverb or a prepositional phrase

7: the prepositional phrase will be a preposition plus a noun phrase

8: the verb tense must be past or present

/p/ and /b/

production of these sounds happens when air is stopped at the lips

/p/ voiceless

/b/ voiced

/t/ and /d/

the tip of the tongue stops the air at the alveolar ridge (just behind the upper teeth)

/t/ voiceless

/d/ voiced

/k/ and /g/

the back of the tongue stops the air at the velum (soft palate)

/k/ voiceless

/g/ voiced

/f/ and /v/

air passes freely until it reaches the front of the mouth, where obstructed by lower lip and upper teeth

/f/ voiceless

/v/ voiced

/θ/ and /ð/

air is obstructed with the tongue between the teeth

/θ/ voiceless

/ð/ voiced

/s/ and /z/

air is obstructed at alveolar ridge

/s/ voiceless

/z/ voiced

/š/ and /Z/

voiceless   voiced

/h/

air rushing through the glottis (space between the vocal cords)

voiceless

/c/ and /j/

voiceless   voiced

/m/, /n/, and /η/

/m/ voiced bilabial

/n/ voiced alveolar

/η/ voiced velar

/l/ and /r/

air escapes at the sides of the tongue

both alveolar

/w/ and /y/

/w/ velar

/y/ alveopalatal

/s/  /z/  /š/  /Z/  /c/  /j/

add a complete syllable for the "s" endings of plurals, possessive morphemes, nouns, and s-form verbs

/ay/  /aw/  /Oy/

vowel sound combined with lip and tongue movement = new sound

              FRONT         CENTRAL          BACK

HIGH      /i/(beat)                           /u/(boot)

              /I/(bit)                             /v/(put)

MID         /e/(bait)       /∂/(but)         /o/(boat)

             /ε/(bet)                            /O/(bought, caught)

LOW      /æ/(bat)                           /a/(father, cot)