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Definition
| the effects that stressors create within the organism is stress. The difficulties and strains experienced by living organisms as they struggle to cope and adapt to changing environmental conditions. |
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| what is the difference between task-oriented and defense-oriented coping? |
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Definition
| Task-oriented coping is when they take action to meet the requirements of the stressor. This type of response may involve in making changes in one's self, one's surroundings, or both, depending on the situation and circumstances. Defense-oriented coping is when behaviour is primarily aimed at preventing themself from hurt or disorganisation. Within this coping strategy there are two types of responses. The first response type includes behaviours such as crying, repetitive talking, and mourning, all of which seem to act as a repair mechanism for psychological damage. |
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Term
| What are adjustment disorders? |
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Definition
| a psychological response to a common stressor(divorce, death of a loved one, loss of a job) that results in clinically significant behavioral or emotional symptoms. The stressor can be a single event, such as going away to college, or involve multiple stressors, such as a business failure and marital problems. The person's symptoms lessen or disappear when the stressor ends or when the person learns to adapt to the stressor. |
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| Stress and the Stress Response section |
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Definition
| Two systems are involved when the body percieves a stressor: the sympathetic-adrenomedullary system (designed to mobilize resources and prepare for a fight or flight response) and the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenocortical system (in addition to stimulation the SNS, the hypothalamus releases a hormone that stimulates the pituitary gland and eventually the stress hormones "glucocorticoids" are produced)in humans the stress glucocorticoid that is produced is called cortisol. Cortisol can damage brain cells if it is not shut off-- stress is bad for your brain. The biological cost of adapting to stress is called allostatic load. When we aren't stressed our load is low. The link between stress and physical illness involves diseases that are not directly related to nervous system activity. Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of the interaction between the nervous system and the immune system. Glucocorticoids can cause stress-induced immunosuppression. The immune system protects the body from such things as viruses and bacteria. Leukocytes or white blood cells, are the front line of defense in the immune system. 2 types of leukocytes: B-cell (matures in the bone marrow and produces specific antigens) T-cell(matures in the thymus, which is an important endocrine gland). Antigens are foreign bodies such as viruses and bacteria, or tumors and cancer cells. Interleukins are a class of chemciasl called cytokines, which are chemical messengers that appear to be of crucial importance for health. Stress slows the healing of wounds by as much as 24-40%. Depression is associated with compromised immune function. Chronic stress and depression may trigger the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, but antidepressants can reduce this elevation. |
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| Stress and Physical Health section |
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Definition
| How you view problems and cope with challenges may directly affect your underlying physical health. Optimists who expect that good things will happen may fare much better, and often serves as a buffer against disease. Negative affect, can have devastating effects on organic functioning. People with major depression run a greater risk of having a heart attack than people with no history of depression. Chronic anger and hostilitiy can be risk factors for coronary heart disease and death. Positive psychology focuses on human traits and resources that might have direction implications for our phsycial and mental well-being. Positive affectivity, gratitude, humar and spirituality are valuable human attributes. |
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Term
| Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder section |
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Definition
| When a traumatic event is thought to cause a pathological memory that is at the center of the characteristic clinical symotoms associated with the disorder. The clinical symptoms can be thought of as #1, recurrent reexperiencing of the traumatic event through nightmares or intrusive memories #2 avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma (such as cars if the person was in a car crash) and emotional numbing #3 increased arousal, which may involve insomnia, the inability to tolerate noise, and an excessive responce when startled.Classified as an anxiety disorder since it includes elements of anxiety such as feelings of fear and apprehension. Certain preexisting vulnerabilities play an important role. Acute stress disorder occurs within 4 weeks of the traumatic event and alsts for a minimum of 2 days and a max of 4 weeks. If longer, it is PTSD. Lifetime prevalence of PTSD in US is 6.8%. Higher in women maybe because women are more likely to be exposed to certain kinds of traumatic experiences. Some people may be more vulnerable to developing PTSD than others. Risk for PTSD has 2 factors: risk for experiencing trauma and risk for PTSD. Biological factors could be gender, the type of trama, gene-environment interactions and the volume of the hippocampus. Justification for the combat, identification with the combat unit, and quality of leadership all play a key role in a person's adjustment to combat. PTSD is often a severe and chronic condition. |
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| Prevention and Treatment of Stress Disorders section |
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Definition
| One way to prevent PTSD is to reduce the frequency of traumatic events (ex, reduce the access that adolescents have to firearms). Also prevent maladaptive responses to stress by preparing people in advance and providing them with information and coping skills. Stress- inoculation training prepares people to tolerate an anticipated threat by changing the things they say to themselves before the crisis. In the first state, information is provided about the stressful situation and about ways people can deal with such dangers. In the second stage, self-statements that promote effective adaptation are rehearsed. Third stage, the person practives making such self-statments while being exposed to a variety of stressors suchc as unpredictable electric shocks, stress- inducing films or sudden cold. Most major cities in US have developed telephone hotlines to help people undergoing periods of severe stress, rape victims and runaways who need help. Psychological First Aid, which consists of a systematic set of helping actions that are aimed at reducing the post-traumatic distress and supporting short and long term functioning. Crisis intervention therapy is also available. Debriefing sessions allow people to discuss their experiences with others, usually shortly after the trauma has subsided. Antidepressants, and other medications that are focused on the symptoms can be used to help PTSD. Prolonged exposure is when the patient is asked to vividly recount the traumatic event over and over until there is a decrease in his or her emotional responses. This procedure also involves repeated or extended exposure, either in vivo or int the imagination, to objectively harmless but feared stimuli that the patient is avoiding becasue of trauma-related fear |
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Term
| What is the difference between fear and anxiety? |
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Definition
| fear is a basic emotion that involves activation of the "fight or flight" response of the autonomic nervous system. Fear and panic have 3 components: #1, cognitive/subjective components (I feel afraid/terrified; I am going to die) #2, physiological components (such as increased heart rate and heavy breathing) #3, behavioral components (a strong urge to exscape or flee) Anxiety, unlike fear, is a complex blend of unpleasant emotions and cognitions that is both more oriented to the future and much more diffuse than fear. Like fear, it has not only cognitive/subjective components but also physiological and behavioral components. There is no activation of the fight or flight response as in fear, but anxiety does prepare or prime a person for the fight or flight response should the anticipated danger occur. Anxiety may create a strong tendency to avoid situations where danger might be encountered, but there is not the immediate behavioral urge to flee with anxiety as there is with fear. |
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| What are the differences and commonalities between the anxiety disorders? |
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Definition
| People with specific or social phobias exhibit many anxiety symptoms about the possibility of encountering their phobic situation, but they may also experience a fear/panic response when they actually encounter the situation. People with panic disorder experience both frequent panic attacks and intense anxiety focused on the possibility of having another one. By contrast, epeople with generalized anxiety disorder mostly experience a general sense of diffuse anxiety and worry about many potentially bad things that may happen, some may also experience an occasional panic attack, but it is not a focus of their anxiey. People with OCD experience intense anxiety or distress in response to intrusive thoughts or images and feel compelled to engage in complusive, ritualistic activites that temporarily help to reduce hte anxiety. There are some biological causal factors such as genetic vulnerability. Common psychological causal factors are classical conditiong of fear/panic or anxiety to a range of stimuli plays an important role in many of these disorders. Also sociocultural environment in which people are raised also has prominent effects on the kinds of objects and experiences people become anxious about or come to fear. There are many commonalities across the effective treatments for the various anxiety disorders. Graduated exposure to feared cues, objects or situations consititues the single most powerful therapeutic ingredient. |
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Term
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Definition
DSM Criteria- A, marked or persistent fear that is excessive or unresaonable, cued by the presence or anticipation of a specific object or situation B, exposure to phoic stimmulus almost invariably provokes an immediate anxiety response or panic attack C, person recognizes that the fear is excessive or unreaonable D, phobic situation avoided or endured with intense anxiety or distress E, symptoms interfere significantly with normal functioning, or there is marked distress about the phobia F, duration of at least 6 months
Prevalence- quite common, 12% lifetime prevalence. Phobias are always considerably more common in women than in men. Average age of onset varies widely. Animal phobias begin in childhood, as do blood-injection injury phobias and dental phobias. Clasutrophobia and driving phobia tend to begin in adolescence or early adulthood.
Causual factors- psychoanalytic viewpoint says that phobias represent a defense against anxiety that stems from repressed impulses from the id. Phobias as learned behavior says classical conditioning( direct traumatic conditioning in which a person has a terrifying experience in the presnce of a neutral object or situation) (also by watching a phobic person behaving fearfully with his or her phobic object can be distressing to the observer and can result in fear being transmitted). Genetic and temperamental variables affect the speed and strength of conditioning of fear. Thus, depending on their genetic makeup or temperament people ar emore or less likely to acquire phobias.
Treatments: exposure therapy- the best treatment for specific phobias- involves controlled exposure to the stimuli or situations that elicit phobic fear. |
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Term
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Definition
DSM Criteria- A, marked or persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations in which the person is exposed to unfamiliar people or possible scrutiny of others B, exposure to feared social situation almost invariably provokes anxiety or panic C, person recognizes that the fear is excessive or unreasonable D, feared social or performance situation avoided or endured with great distress or anxiety E, symptoms interfere significantly with person's normal routine, or occupational or social functioning.
Prevalence- very common, 12% of population will qualify for a diagnosis of social phobia. More common among women than men. Typically begin somewhat later during early or middle adolescence or early adulthood. More than half of these people suffer from one or more additional anxiety disorders and 50% also suffer from depression. 1/3 abuse alcohol to reduce their anxiety and help them face the situations they fear. They have lower employment rates and lower socioeconomic status.
Causal Factors- Learned behaviors, classical conditioning. Evolutionary context says that social fears and phobias evolved as a by-product of dominance heirarchies that are a common social arrangement among animals. uncontrollable and unpredictable events may play an important role in the development of social phobia. cognitive factos also play a role in the onset and maintenance of social phobia. Behavioral inhibition also is the most important temperamental variable.
Treatments- cognitive restructuring the therapist attempts to help clients with social phobia identify their underlying negative, automatic thoughts, then change these inner thoughts and beliefs through logical reanalysis. Medications are usually antidepressants, although better results come from cognitive-behavioral treatments. |
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Term
| Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia |
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Definition
A discrete period of intense fear in which four or more of the following symptoms devlop abruptly and reach a peak within 10 mintues: .1 palpitations or pounding heart 2. sweating 3. trembling 4. sensations of shortness of breath or being smothered 5. feeling of coking 6. chest pain or discomfort 7. nausea or abdominal distress 8. feeling dizzy, lightheaded or faith 9. derealization (feelings of unreality) or depersonalization (being detached from oneself) 10. fear of losing control or going crazy 11. fear of dying 12. paresthesias (numbness or tingling sensations) 13. chills or hot flushes
prevalence- 4.7% of the adult population has had panic disorder with or without agoraphobia at some time im their lives, with panic disorder without agoraphobia being more common. Start late in teenage years, average onset at 23 to 34 years. Especially for women in thirties or forties. Once starts tends to have a choronic and disabling course. About twice as prevalent in women as in men.
Causal Factors- genetic factors show there is a moderate heritable component. Panic and the brain shows that panic disorder is likely to develop in people who have abnormally sensitive fear networks that get activated too readily to be adaptive. Biochemical abnormalities also play a part. Comprehensive learning theory of panic disorder says that initial panic attacks become associated with initially neutral internal and external cues. One primary effect of this conditioning is that anxiety becomes conditioned to these CSs and the more intense the panic attack, the more robust the conditioning that will occur. The congitive theory of panic says that individuals with panic disorder are hypersensitive to their bodily sensations and are very prone to giving them the direst possible interpretation.
Treatments- medications, many people with panic disorder (with or without agoraphobia) are prescribed anxiolytics (anti-anxiety medications) and these people frequently show some symptom relief from these medications and can function more effectively, these drugs act very quickly. Prolonged exposure to feared situations are often used with the help of a therapist or family member. |
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| Panic Disorder without Agoraphobia |
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Definition
DSM Criteria: 1. recurrent, unexpected panic attacks and at least one of the attacks followed by 1 month or more of a. concern about having another one b. worry about consequences of an attack (heart attack)2. absence of agoraphobia 3. panic attack not due to physiological effects of a substance or medical condition d. panic attacks not better explained by another mental disorder such as social or specific phobia
prevalence- 4.7% of the adult population has had panic disorder with or without agoraphobia at some time im their lives, with panic disorder without agoraphobia being more common. Start late in teenage years, average onset at 23 to 34 years. Especially for women in thirties or forties. Once starts tends to have a choronic and disabling course. About twice as prevalent in women as in men.
Causal Factors- genetic factors show there is a moderate heritable component. Panic and the brain shows that panic disorder is likely to develop in people who have abnormally sensitive fear networks that get activated too readily to be adaptive. Biochemical abnormalities also play a part. Comprehensive learning theory of panic disorder says that initial panic attacks become associated with initially neutral internal and external cues. One primary effect of this conditioning is that anxiety becomes conditioned to these CSs and the more intense the panic attack, the more robust the conditioning that will occur. The congitive theory of panic says that individuals with panic disorder are hypersensitive to their bodily sensations and are very prone to giving them the direst possible interpretation.
Treatments- medications, many people with panic disorder (with or without agoraphobia) are prescribed anxiolytics (anti-anxiety medications) and these people frequently show some symptom relief from these medications and can function more effectively, these drugs act very quickly. Prolonged exposure to feared situations are often used with the help of a therapist or family member. |
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Term
| Generalized Anxiety Disorder |
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Definition
DSM criteria: 1. excessive anxiety and worry occuring more days than not for at least 6 montsh about a number of events or activites 2. person finds it difficult to control the worry 3. anxiety and worry associated with 3 or more of the following for more days thank not: 1, restlessness or feeling keyed up 2, being easily fatigued 3, difficulty concentrating 4, irritability 5, muscle tension 6, sleep disturbance 4. Anxiety and worry not confided to features of another Axis 1 disorder 5. Symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in functioning
Prevalence: 3% of population suffer from it in any 1 yr period and 5.7% at some point in their lives; it also tends to be chronic. Twice as common in women. Age of onset is often difficult, but recent research has documented that GAD often develops in oder adults.
Causal Factors: psychoanalytic viewpoint says anxiety results from an unconscious conflict between ego and id impulses that is not adequately dealt with because the person's defense mechanims have either broken down or have never developed. Uncontrollable and unpredictable aversive events are much mores stressful than controllable and predictable aversive events, thus these create more fear and anxiety. A person's history of control over important aspects of his or her environment is another important experiential variaiable. Also the worry process is now considered the central feature of GAD. Genetic factors play a part, as well as neurotransmitter and neurohormonal abnormalities
Treatments- medication from the benzodiazepine catory such as Xanax or Klonopin are used. Also antidepressants like those used in panic disorder are also used. Cognitive behavioral therapy has become increasingly effective. Involves a combination of behavioral techniques such as training in applied muscle relaxation and congnitive restructuring techniques. |
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Term
| Obsessive Compulsive Disorder |
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Definition
DSM Criteria: 1. either obsessions or compulsions, obsessions are defined by a. recurrent and persistent thoughts, impulses, or images that are experienced at some time as intrusive and inappropriate and cause marked anxiety or distress b. thoughts, impulses, or images are not simply excessive worries about real-life problemcs c. person attempts to ignore or suppress or neutralize them with some other thought or action d. person recognizes they are a product of his or her own mind compulsions are defined by a. repetitive behaviors (hand washing, ordering, checking) or mental acts (praying, counting) the person feels driven to perform in response to an obsession, or according to rigid rules b. behaviors or mental acts aimed at preventing or reducing distress or preventing some dreaded event or situation 2. at least at some point, person recognizes that the obsession or compulsions are excessive or unreasonable 3. obsessions or comulsions cause marked distress, are time consuming or interfere significantly with normal functioning
Prevalence- 1% average 1 yr prevalence and 1.6% lifetime prevalence. 90% of ppl with OCD have both obsessions and compulsions. Little to no gender difference in adults. Begins at late adolescence or early adulthood, but is not uncoomon in children. tends to be chronic
Causal Factors: learned behavior where neutral stimuli become associated with frightening thoughts or experiences through classical conditioning and come to elicit anxiety (ex, toaching a doorknowb might become associated with the scary idea of contamination). Preparedness or evolutionary context. Cognitive causal factors such as attempting to suppress obsessive thoughts may experience a paradoxical increase in those thoughts later. Genetic factors and abnormalities occur primarily in the certain cortical structures of the brain.
Treatments: exposure and response prevention seems to be the most effective approach to treating obsessive-compulsive disorders. Medications are usually those that affect the neuro transmitter serotonin. A major disadvantage with meds though is when the meds are discontinued, relapse rates are generally very high. |
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| What are Mood Disorders section |
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Definition
| the two moods involved in mood disorders are mania (characterized by intense and unrealistic feelings of excitment and euphoria) and depression (usually involves feelings of extraordinary sadness and dejection). These two are often thought to be at opposite ends of a mood continuum, with normal mood in the middle. Unipolar depressive disorders is when the person experiences only depressive episodes. Bipolar disorders is when the person experimences both manic and depressive episodes. Major depressive episode is a primary kind of mood episode, in which the person must be markedly depressed for most of every day for at least 2 weeks. Manic episode is another one in which the person shows markedly elevated, euphoric or expanisve mood, often interrupted by occasional outbursts of intense irritability or even violence. In milder forms similar symptoms can lead to hypomanic episode, in which a person experiences abnormally elevated, expansive or irritable mood for at least 4 days. Prevalence- major mood disorders occur with alarming frequency. life time prevalences rates of unipolar major depression are 17%. Always much higher for women than for men. |
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Definition
| Suicide attempts- Most common in people between 18 and 24 yrs. Women are 3 times as likely. Rates are also 3 or 4xs higher in people who are separted or divorced. Commited Suicides- 4xs more men than women die by suicide each year. HIghest in the elderly, divorced or widowed, or sufering from a choronic physical illness. Psychosocial factors- impulsivity, aggression and pessimism. Sociocultural Factors- whites have significantly higher rates of suicide than AA, except amoung young males where rates are similar between white and AA emn. |
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| What are the main methods of suicide prevention and intervention? |
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Definition
| three main thrusts of preventive efforts: treatment of the person's current mental disorder as noted aboce, crisis intervention and working with high-risk groups. Another way to prevent suicide might be through treating the underlying mental disorder the potentially suicidal person has. In depression such treatment is often in the form of antidepressant medications. Attempts at sessions in cognitive therapy that focused on suicide preventaion proved quite beneficial in reducing further attempts. Intevention- primary objective of crisis intervention is to help a person cope with an immediate life crisis. If a serious sucide attempt has been made, the first step involves emergency med treatment, followed by referral to inpatient or outpatient mental health facilities. |
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Term
| differences between the somatoform and dissociative disorders |
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Definition
| somatoform disorders involve patterns in which individuals complain of bodily symptoms or defects that suggest the presnce of medical problems, but for which no organic basis can be found that satisfactorily explains the symptoms such as paralysis or pain. such individuals are typically preoccupied with their state of health and with various presumed disorder or diseases of bodily organs. They are not intentionallly faking symptoms , but genuinely believe something is wrong with their bodies. Differntly than somatoform, dissociative disorders invovle disruptions in certain aspects of a person's consciousness, memory, identity or perception. |
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