response to the effector negates the stimulus

(less dramatic response for less dramatic situations)

response of the effector reinforces the stimulus

(ex. labor contractions)

Neutral

-found in the nucleus

chemical bond formed when two or more atoms share pairs of valence electons

-single bond, double bond, triple bond

1. Solubility-water's ability to dissolve a solute ina solvent to make a solution
2. Reactivity-most body chemistry uses or occurs in water
3. High Heat Capacity-water's ability to absorb and retain heat
4. Lubrication-to moisten and reduce friction

reacts with water

"hydro"=water, "philic"=loving

Phobic=fear

Does not react with water

a balance of H+ and OH

pure water=7.0

pH lower than 7.0

-high H+ concentration, low OH- concentration

pH higher than 7.0

-low H+ concentration, high OH- concentration

-damages cells and tissues

-alters proteins

-interferes with physiological functions

-positive or negative ions in soluction

-contains no H+ of OH-

-weak/acid compounds

-nuetralizes either strong acid or strong base

Carbonhydrates Functions:

Monosaccharides

simple sugars with 3 to 7 carbon atoms (glucose)

(Energy Source)

Carbon Functions:

Disaccharides

2 simple sugars condensed by dehydration synthesis (sucrose)

(Energy Source)

Carbohydrate Functions:

Polysaccharides

Chains of many simple sugars (glycogen)

(Storage of Glucose!)

-Mostly hydrophobic molecules (fats and oils)

-made mostly of carbon and hydrogen atoms

1. Fatty Acids-Energy Sources
2. Elcosanolds-Chemical messengers coordinating local activity
3. Glycerides-energy source, energy storage, insulation, and physical protection
4. Steroids-structual component of cell membrane, hormones, digestive secretions in bile
5. Phospholipids-structual component of cell membrane

Saturated- with hygrogen (no covalent bonds)

Unsaturated (one or more double bonds)

Leukotrienes: active in immune system

Prostaglandins: local hormones, short chain fatty acids

fatty acids attached to glyverol molecule

-Triglycerides: 3 fatty acid tails, fat storage molecule

1. Cholesterol
2. Estrogens and Testosterones
3. Corticosteroids and Calcitrol
4. Bile Salts

Most abundant and important organic molecules

• Made of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen
• Consists of 20 Amino Acids

1. Support: Structual Proteins
2. Movement: Contractile Proteins
3. Transport: Transport Proteins
4. Buffering: Regulation of pH
5. Metabolic Regulation: Enzymes
6. Coordination and Control: Hormons
7. Defense: Antibodies

What kind of protein?

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Fibrous Proteins

Structural Sheets or Strands

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What kind of protein shape?

What protein structure?

[image]

[image]

What protein structure?

Which protein structure?

[image]

• catalysts
• proteins that lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction

1. Substrates: Reactants in enzymatic reactions
2. Active Sites: A location on an enzyme that fits a particular substrate

1. Cofactor-an ion or molecule that binds to an enzyme before substrates can bind
2. Coenzyme-nonprotein organic cofactors (vitamins)
3. Isozymes: 2 enzymes that can catalyze the same reaction

1. Specificity: one enzyme catalyzes one reaction
2. Saturation Limits- an enzyme's maximum work rate
3. Regulation- the ability to turn on and off

Large Organic moelcules found in the nucleus, which store and process information at the molecular level

(DNA and RNA)

DNA

• Determines inherited characteristics
• Directs protein synthesis
• Controls enzyme production
• Controls metabolism

RNA

-Codes intermediate steps in protein synthesis

• Purines pair with pyrimidines:
• DNA: adenine (A) and thymine (T) and  cytosine (C) and guanine (G)
• RNA: uracil (U) replaces thymine (T)

DNA: A, T, C, G

RNA, A, U, C, G

Building blocks of DNA

3 molecular parts:

1. sugar
2. phosphate group
3. nitrogenous base (A, G, T, C)

Carbs make ATP and store in muscles for energy

*Nitrogenous base-a sugar and phosphate bonds

organelle functions:

cytoskeleton

microtuble

microfilament

(RNA+proteins)

Protein Synthesis

Lipid and carbohydrates

(Lacks attached membranes)

Organelle Functions: Nucleus

Nuclear Envelope

Nuclear Pore

no membrane

-direct contact with cytosol

-covered with plasma membrane

-isolated from cytosol

1. Cytoskeleton

2. Microvilli

3. Centrioles

4. Cilia

5. Ribosomes

6. Proteasomes

Proteoglycans, glycoproteins and glycolipids

(extended outside cell membrane, form sticky "sugar coat")

-Lubricate and protect

-Anchor and locomotion

-Specificity in binding (receptors)

-Recognize (immune response)

Thin filaments composed of protein actin:

-provide additional mechanical strength

-interact with proteins for consistency

-pairs with thick filaments of myosin for muscle movement

-Mid-sized between microfilaments and thick filaments:

-durable (collagen)

-stengthen cell and maintain shape

-stabilize organelles

-stabilize cell position

Increase surface area for absorbtion

-attach to cytoskeleton only on side of absorbtion

Contain enzymes (proteases)

Disassemble damaged proteins for recycling

1. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

2. Gogli Apparatus

3. Lysosomes

4. Peroxisomes

5. Mitochondria

5. Nucleus

Made up or proteins or carbs

-synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids

-storage of synthesized molecules and materials

-transport of materials within ER

-Detoxification of drugs or toxins

endo=within, plasm-cytoplasm, reticulum=network

-No ribosomes attached

-Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates:

-phospholipids and cholesterol (membranes)

-steroid hormons (reproductive system)

-glycerides (storage in liver and fat cells)

-glycogen (storage in muscles)

Surface covered with ribosomes:

-active in protein and glycoprotein synthesis

-folds polypeptides protein structures

-encloses products in transport vehicles

Powerful Enzyme-containing vesicles

lyso=dissolve

some=body

-lysosome fused with damaged organelle

-digestive enzymes activated

-toxic  chemicals isolated

Clean up insides cells:

-break down large molecules

-attack bacteria

-recycle damaged organelles

-ejects wastes by exocytosis

Self-destruction of damaged cells (Autolysis):

-lysosome membranes break down

-digestive enzymes released

-cell decomposes

-cellular materials recycle

enzyme-containing vehicles:

-break down fatty acids, organic compounds

-produce hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

-replicate by division

Mitochondria Structures:

Have smooth outer membrane and folded inner membrane (CRISTAE)-forms walls or rooms

-takes chemical energy from food (glucose)

-produces energy molecule ATP (Aerobic Metabolism)

Nucleus Functions: Nucleus

-are related to protein production

-Are made of RNA, enzymes and histones

-Synthesize rRNA and ribsomal subunits

basic structural and functional units of life

-respond to their environment

-maintain homeostasis at the cellular level

-modify structure and function over time

DNA instructions for 1 protein

(sugars and phosphates)

-60 code for amino acids

-4 act as "stop" and "start" codes

Very specific about what is allowed in and out

-based on size, electrical charge, molecular shape, lipid solubility

-All molecules are constantly moving

-molecules in soltion move randomly

-Random moving causes mixing

more solute in 1 part of solvent than another

Diffusion:

-molecules mix randomly

-solute spreads through solvent

-eliminated concentration gradient

Simple-Materials which diffuse through cell membrane:

-lipid soluble

-dissolved gases

Channel-Mediated- Materials which pass through transmembrane proteins (channels)

diffusion of water across the cell membrane

-membrane must be freely permeable to water, selectively permeable to solutes

water molecules diffuse across membrane toward solution with more solues

-volume increases on side with more solutes

Force of a concentration gradient of water

-equals the force (hydrostatic pressure) needed to block osmosis

Has less solutes

-GAINS water through osmosis

Has more solutes

Loses water through osmosis (crenation)

Passive and carrier mediated

-Carrier Proteins transport molecules too large to fit through channel proteins (glucose, amino acids)

Active Transport Proteins:

-move substrates against concentration gradient

-require energy

Sodium Potassium Pump-

-Na+ concentration gradient drive glucose transport

-ATP energy pumps Na+ back out

- "bulk" transport

Vesicles:

-endocytosis

-active transport using ATP

-exocytosis

-Receptors bind target molecules

-Coated vesicle carries ligands and recepters into the cell

Pinocytosis: Endosomes "drink" extracellular fluid

Phagocytosis: cell eating

-DNA replication

-Mitosis

-Cytokinesis divides cytoplasm and organelles into 2 daughter cells

nondividing state but cell is metobolically active

1. cellular replacement

2. tissue repair

3. development

4. tumore growth

prepares the cell for division

-Nuclear envelope has disappeared

-spindle has formed

-chromosomes short and thick

-chomosomes line up on equatorial plate of division

-centromeres attached by kineocores (proteins) to spindle fibers, micotubles made up of tubulin

Chromosome halves migrate to poles

-centromeres divide

-chromosome halves migrate to opposite poles of cell

-chromosomes migrate by sliding microtubules

reverse activities of prophase

-chromosomes reach poles of cell

-spindle fibers degraded

-nuclear membrane reassembled

-chromosomes elongate

-nucleoli reassembled

-constriction of actin fibers forming belt around cell in animal cells

-abnormal cell

-primary tumor

-metastasis

-secondary tumor

enlarged mass of cells

-abnormal cell growth and division

-contained

-non life threatening

-spread into surrounding tissues (invasion)

-start new tumors (metastasis)

protects against attacks

1. connect epithelium to the rest of the body

2. provide struction (bone)

3. Store energy (fat)

4. Transport materials (blood)

5. Have no contact with environment

simple cuboidal epithelium

Simple Columnar Epithelium

Psudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Glandular Epithelia

Endocine and Exocine Glands

Endocrine- release hormones

Exocine-produce secretions on epithelial surfaces

resists force in 1 direction

E.g tendons and ligaments

interwoven fibers-resists force in many directions

e.g. sheaths around organs

contain elastin, return to original length after stretching

e.g. elastic ligaments of vertebrae

blood and lymph

watery matrix of dissolved proteins

carry specific cell types

Bone

line cavities but not open to outside

double, have parietal portion covering the cavity and a visceral portion covering the organs

Line articulating (moving) joint cavitites

-protects ends of bones

in skin, surface of the body

-thick, waterproof, and dry

found in walls of hollow, contracting organs

(blood vessels, urinary bladder, respiratory, digestive and reproductive tracts)

nerve cells

perform electrical communication

support cells

repair and supply nutrients to neurons

1. Cell Body- contains the nucleus and nucleolus

2. Dendrites-short branches extending from the cell body

-receive incoming signals

3. Axon (nerve Fiber)-long thin extension of the cell body

-carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination