The respiratory system consists of what parts of the body? (6 total)

1. nose

2. pharynx

3. larynx

4. trachea

5. bronchi

6. lungs

What is the purpose of the respiratory system?

Bring O2 into the body and to take CO2 out of the body.

Respiratory Process.

1. ____ enters the body when you inhale.

2. This* then diffuses into the _____, which transports it to the cells of the body.

1. O2

2. blood

Respiratory Process.

3. The body cells use the O2 to produce ATP (energy) through a process called ________________:

-- What is the equation for this?

4. ____ is released from this reaction. Body cells cannot tolerate this* since it is a toxic waste product; therefore, it* diffuses into the blood and is removed from the body when you exhale.

3. cellular (aerobic) respiration

-- glucose + O2 → CO2 + H2O + 32 ATP (energy)

4. CO2

the study of the structure, function, and disorders of the ears, nose, and throat

otorhinolaryngology

the study of structure, function, and disorders of the lungs

pulmonology

The nose is divided into 2 major regions, what are they?

1. external nose

2. nasal nose

consists of bone and cartilage covered with skin

external nose

- the space within the nose

- surrounded by bones that are lined by a mucosa

nasal cavity

What does mucosa consist of?

- an epithelial layer

- an underlying layer of connective tissue

1. The epithelium of the mucosa that lines the nasal cavity consists of ________ and scattered ________.

2. These* are cells that secrete _______.

1. ciliated cells; goblet cells

2. mucus

The anterior region of the nasal cavity opens up to the outside environment as the _________________.

external nares (singular is naris) or nostrils

1. The posterior region of the nasal cavity joins the ______.

2. The superior region of the nasal cavity contains the __________, which consists of sensory receptors that are involved in the detection of smell.

1. pharynx

2. olfactory epithelium

- also called the throat

- a tube that joins the nose and mouth to the larynx and esophagus

pharynx

- Consequently, the pharynx is considered to be part of the respiratory system and part of the digestive system.

The pharynx consists of 3 regions, what are they?

1. nasopharynx

2. oropharynx

3. laryngopharynx

- the upper region of the pharynx

- lies posterior to and is continuous with the nasal cavity

nasopharynx

- the middle region of the pharynx

- lies posterior to and is continuous with the oral cavity

oropharynx

- the lower region of the pharynx

- continuous with the larynx anteriorly and the esophagus inferiorly

laryngopharynx

The wall of the pharynx consists of what 2 layers?

1. skeletal muscle — forms the outer layer

2. mucosa — inner layer that lines the lumen of the pharynx

-The epithelium of the mucosa that lines the pharynx consists of ciliated cells and scattered goblet cells that secrete mucus.

- also called the voice box

- What are the 3 parts that this* consists of?

larynx

1. cartilage

2. skeletal muscle

3. mucosa

What are the 3 most important pieces of cartilage that form the outer layer of the larynx?

1. thyroid cartilage

2. cricoid cartilage

3. epiglottis

- also called the Adam’s apple

- forms the anterior wall of the larynx

- It is larger in males than in females because testosterone stimulates its growth during puberty.

thyroid cartilage

- a ring of cartilage that is inferior to the thyroid cartilage

cricoid cartilage

- a spoon-shaped piece of cartilage that is attached to the thyroid cartilage at one end, while the other end is free to move up and down

epiglottis

Epiglottis.

1. When only air is moving into the nose and pharynx, the _______ of the epiglottis is pointed upward and the larynx is _____, which allows air to travel into the rest of the respiratory system.

2. During swallowing, the this* of the epiglottis moves down to cover the ______ like a lid.

1. free end; open

2. larynx

Epiglottis.

3. This prevents food and liquids from entering the ______, thereby forcing these substances into the esophagus.

4. If anything besides air finds its way into the this* by mistake, a vigorous _______ occurs to expel the material.

3. larynx

4. coughing reflex

- Recall that the coughing reflex is coordinated by the coughing center in the medulla oblongata.

Epiglottis.

2 pairs of folds (connective tissue that is string-like) extend between the cartilages of the larynx: a superior pair of vestibular folds (_________) and an inferior pair of vocal folds (_________).

- false vocal cords

- true vocal cords

- not involved in vocalization

vestibular folds (false vocal cords)

- involved in vocalization (sound production)

vocal folds (true vocal cords)

- When air strikes the vocal folds, the vocal folds vibrate and a sound is produced.

How is loudness (volume) of a sound determined in our vocal cords?

by how vigorously air strikes the vocal folds

1. When air strikes the vocal folds forcefully, a ____ sound is produced.

2. When air strikes the vocal folds mildly, a ____ sound is produced.

3. The pitch of the sound is determined by the _______ of the vocal folds.

4. ____ vocal folds produce a high pitched sound, while _____ vocal folds produce a low pitched sound.

1. loud 

2. soft

3. tautness (tightness)

4. Tight; loose

- forms the middle layer of larynx

skeletal muscle

- inner layer that lines the lumen of the larynx

mucosa

- The epithelium of the mucosa that lines the larynx consists of ciliated cells and scattered goblet cells that secrete mucus.

- also called the windpipe

- This* consists of what components?

trachea

1. cartilage

2. smooth muscle

3. mucosa

1. Several ________ of cartilage form the anterior and lateral walls of the trachea

2. These cartilages provide support to the trachea and prevent it from _______.

1. “C-shaped” rings

2. collapsing

1. A region of smooth muscle called the ________ forms the outer posterior wall of the trachea.

2. Contraction or relaxation of the this* changes the _______ of the trachea, which alters airflow.

1. trachealis

2. diameter 

The trachea gives rise to the _______________, which goes to the left lung and the ________________, which goes to the right lung.

1. left primary (main) bronchus

2. right primary (main) bronchus

The histological structure of each primary bronchus is similar to that of the trachea: ____________ of cartilage form the outer anterior and lateral walls, ____________ forms the outer posterior wall, and a ______ lines the lumen.

- “C-shaped” rings

- smooth muscle

- mucosa

The epithelium of the mucosa consists of ________ and ________ that secrete mucus.

- ciliated cells

- scattered goblet cells

There are 2 cone-shaped _____ located in the thoracic cavity.

lungs

- A connective tissue sac that surrounds each lung

- It is organized into what 2 layers?

- pleura

1. parietal

2. visceral

Pleura.

- outer layer

- fused to the wall of the thoracic cavity

parietal layer

Pleura.

- inner layer

- attached to the lung surface

visceral layer

- also called the ________

- a space that is located between the parietal and visceral layers of the pleura

- contains a few milliliters (mLs) of __________, which functions as a lubricant by reducing friction within the pleura as the lungs expand and recoil during breathing

pleural cavity

- intrapleural cavity

- intrapleural fluid

1. How many lobes are in the right lung?

2. How many are in the left lung?

1. 3

2. 2

Internal Organization of the Lungs.

Each lung consists of components that form as the primary bronchus repeatedly branches "downward." Name these components.

1. small bronchi (secondary, tertiary)

2. bronchioles

3. alveoli

Internal Organization of the Lungs.

1. Each primary bronchus branches to form ______________.

2. These* branch to form ______________.

3. Then these* branch to form ________.

4. These* branch to form _____________.

1. secondary (lobar) bronchi

2. tertiary (segmental) bronchi

3. bronchioles

4. terminal bronchioles

Internal Organization of the Lungs.

5. The terminal bronchioles branch to form _____________. These* differ from terminal bronchioles in that they contain scattered ______ in their walls. These* are the sites of gas exchange.

5. respiratory bronchioles; alveoli (singular is alveolus)

Internal Organization of the Lungs. 

6. The respiratory bronchioles branch to form _________, which lead to numerous alveoli (singular is alveolus). The alveoli typically are clustered together like grapes to form ________. There are about 150 million alveoli in each lung (300 million total), which provide the body with a huge surface area for gas exchange!

6. alveolar ducts; alveolar sacs

The bronchi and their branches are collectively known as the __________ due to their similarity to the branches of a tree.

bronchial tree

Each secondary bronchus consists of 3 layers. What are they?

1. an outer layer of cartilage

2. a middle layer of smooth muscle

3. an inner layer of mucosa

The epithelium of the mucosa that lines the secondary bronchus consists of ________ and scattered ________ that secrete mucus.

- ciliated cells

- goblet cells

As the secondary bronchi branch to form the smaller components of the bronchial tree, several structural changes occur in order to facilitate gas exchange in the respiratory bronchioles and alveoli:

1. The amount of cartilage becomes smaller and smaller such that by the time the bronchioles are formed, the cartilage has disappeared.

2. Smooth muscle is present from the secondary bronchi up to and including the terminal bronchioles. It is not present in subsequent branches.

3. The epithelium of the mucosa gradually changes from ciliated epithelium in the secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, and bronchioles to nonciliated epithelial cells that lack goblet cells altogether in the terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, and alveoli.

The gradual disappearance of the layers of the bronchial tree results in alveoli that consist of only a ______ composed of ________ surrounded by a thin layer of __________.

- mucosa; epithelium; connective tissue

The thinness of the alveolar wall is vital to the process of ____________.

gas exchange

Each alveolus consists of 2 types of nonciliated epithelial cells. What are they?

type I alveolar cells

type II alveolar cells

form the wall of the alveolus

type I alveolar cells

- also called septal cells

- secrete surfactant

type II alveolar cells

What is surfactant?

A chemical that helps to keep the alveoli open; without surfactant, the alveoli would collapse (close).

1. In addition, there are ___________ present in the alveoli; these cells remove debris and microbes via phagocytosis.

2. Note that each alveolar sac is surrounded by an ____________.

1. alveolar macrophages

2. extensive capillary bed

1. The components of the respiratory system are considered to be one continuous ______.

2. The components of this* that are located outside the lung include, what?

3. The components of this* that are located inside the lung include, what?

1. airway

2. nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and right and left primary bronchi

3. all the subsequent branches of the primary bronchi

Based on function, the airway can be divided into 2 zones. What are they?

1. conducting zone

2. respiratory zone

1. The part of the airway from the nose to the terminal bronchioles

2. What are its 2 important functions?

1. conducting zones

2. It conducts (brings) air into the lungs / It removes debris and microbes from the lungs

True or False: Gas exchange occurs in the conducting zone.

False.

- There is no gas exchange in the conducting zone.

1. How does the conducting zone remove debris and microbes from the lungs?

2. The conducting zone functions as a ______________.

1. This occurs due to the cilia of the epithelial cells that line the lumen of the conducting zone.

2. mucociliary escalator

1. Consists of the respiratory bronchioles and the alveoli

2. The major functions of this* is __________.

1. respiratory zone

2. gas exchange

The major function of the respiratory zone is gas exchange, which involves the following:

1. During inspiration, O2 diffuses from the alveoli into the blood of the pulmonary capillaries.

2. CO2 diffuses from the blood of the pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli and is then removed from the body via expiration.

Autonomic Innervation of Respiratory System.

The smooth muscle in the walls of the bronchi and larger bronchioles are innervated by both divisions of the autonomic nervous system. What are the 2 divisions?

1. Parasympathetic

2. Sympathetic

Autonomic Innervation of Respiratory System.

Parasympathetic activity (via the _____ nerves) constricts (contracts) the smooth muscle of the bronchi and larger bronchioles (________) .

Vagus; bronchoconstriction

– The body requires less air during the parasympathetic mode.

Autonomic Innervation of Respiratory System.

Sympathetic activity _______ the smooth muscle of the bronchi and larger bronchioles (________).

dilates (relaxes); bronchodilation

–The body requires more air during the sympathetic mode.

The Mechanics of Breathing.

1. Breathing (__________) is the process by which air flows into and out of the lungs in order to undergo gas exchange in the alveoli.

2. Air flows between the atmosphere and lungs based on a ___________.

3. Air flows from the atmosphere into the lungs when the alveolar pressure is ____ than atmospheric pressure.

4. Air flows from the lungs into the atmosphere when the alveolar pressure is _____ than atmospheric pressure.

1. pulmonary ventilation

2. pressure gradient

3. less

4. greater

The Mechanics of Breathing.

1. ___________ is the pressure exerted on the walls of the alveoli by gases (like O2, CO2, N2, etc.) in air within the lungs.

2. ___________ is the pressure exerted on our surroundings by gases in the air of the atmosphere.

1. Alveolar pressure

2. Atmospheric pressure

⇒ At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg

Lung-Chest Wall System.

1. The _________ is fused to the thoracic cavity wall, while the __________ lines the surface of the lungs.

2. Between these* of the pleura is the pleural cavity, which contains a few milliliters of __________.

1. parietal pleura; visceral pleura

2. intrapleural fluid

Lung-Chest Wall System.

1. The intrapleural fluid causes the lungs and chest wall to be ________ like two pieces of film that are held together by water.

2. Consequently, if the thoracic cavity increases in size, the lungs ______; if the thoracic cavity decreases in size, the lungs ______.

1. coupled together

2. expand; recoil (become smaller)

Lung-Chest Wall System.

1. There is a certain amount of pressure associated with the intrapleural fluid; this pressure is called ____________.

2. This* is normally _________, ranging from ________ at any time during the breathing cycle.

1. intrapleural pressure

2. subatmospheric; 754 to 756 mmHg

Lung-Chest Wall System.

3. Since intrapleural pressure is less than atmospheric pressure, it is said to be a ____________.

4. It is this* of the intrapleural fluid that causes the ______ that holds the lungs to the thoracic cavity wall via the pleura. 

3. negative pressure (vacuum)

4. suction

Breathing Cycle.

Each breathing cycle consists of 3 phases, what are they?

1. a period of rest

2. an inspiration

3. an expiration

Breathing Cycle.

1. During the ______ phase of the breathing cycle, alveolar pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure, which is ______.

2. Therefore, no air flows into or out of the lungs due to the lack of a __________.

1. resting; 760 mmHg

2. pressure gradient

Breathing Cycle.

1. The flow of air into the lungs

2. In order for air to move into the lungs, _______ pressure has to become less than _______ pressure.

– This occurs by increasing the volume of the lungs.

1. inspiration

2. alveolar; atmospheric

Breathing Cycle.

- States that the pressure of a gas in a container is inversely proportional to the volume of the container

- This means that when the volume of the lungs (i.e. the container) increases, the alveolar pressure within the lungs must decrease, and vice versa.

Boyle's Law

1. During a normal inspiration, the ______ and ____________ contract.

2. The contraction of the ______ causes this muscle to drop from its arched position and ________.

3. The contraction of the ____________ pulls the rib cage upward. The actions of these muscles have the net effect of increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. Because the lungs are linked to the chest wall via intrapleural fluid, as the thoracic cavity enlarges, the lungs expand.

1. diaphragm; external intercostal muscles

2. diaphragm; flatten out

3. external intercostals

As a consequence of the increase in lung volume, the alveolar pressure decreases from ___ mmHg to ___ mmHg. Air then flows from the atmosphere into the alveoli.

- 760 mmHg to 758 mmHg

During a labored inspiration, the accessory muscles of inspiration (__________, _______, and __________) contract along with the diaphragm and external intercostals. The contractions of the accessory muscles of inspiration further pull the rib cage upward, which causes the thoracic cavity to become even larger in volume. Consequently, there is a greater expansion of the lungs, which results in a lower alveolar pressure and additional air flows from the atmosphere into the lungs.

- sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, pectoralis minor

1. The flow of air out of the lungs

2. In order for air to move out of the lungs, alveolar pressure has to become ______ than atmospheric pressure.

– This occurs by decreasing the volume of the lungs

1. expiration

2. greater

During a __________, the thoracic cavity decreases in size. This occurs by ______________ that contracted during 102 inspiration. The diaphragm relaxes and moves back to its arched position. The external intercostals relax, which lowers the rib cage. Because the lungs are linked to the chest wall via intrapleural fluid, as the thoracic cavity decreases its size, the lungs recoil (become smaller).

- normal expiration

- relaxing the muscles

As a consequence of the decrease in lung volume, the alveolar pressure increases to ___ mmHg and air moves from the alveoli into the atmosphere.

762 mmHg

A ____________ is caused by the contraction of the ____________ and the abdominal muscles (rectus abdominis, tranversus abdominis, external oblique, and internal oblique). The contractions of these muscles further pull the rib cage downward, which causes the thoracic cavity to become even smaller in volume.

Consequently, the lungs become smaller, which results in a greater ______ in alveolar pressure and additional air flows from the alveoli into the atmosphere.

- labored expiration

- internal intercostals

- increase

Breathing is regulated by the ____________.

respiratory center

Where is the respiratory center located?

- located in the medulla and the pons of the brain stem

Involuntarily causes the different phases of the breathing cycle (rest, inspiration, and expiration)

respiratory center

The respiratory center has neural connections with the __________, which innervates the diaphragm.

phrenic nerve

The respiratory center also has neural connections with the __________, which innervate the external intercostals and the internal intercostals

intercostal nerves

In addition, neural connections between the __________ and the __________ allow for voluntary (conscious) control of breathing (such as during talking, singing, whistling, etc.)

cerebral cortex; respiratory center 

The amount of air that flows into or out of the lungs can be measured by an apparatus called a ________.

spirometer

What are the 3 components of a spirometer?

1. breathing tube

2. floating bell (cylindrical device that floats in water)

3. pen recorder

What are the 3 components of a spirometer?

1. breathing tube

2. floating bell (cylindrical device that floats in water)

3. pen recorder

Spirometer.

1. A patient breathes into the __________.

2. The floating bell moves up and down in the water as the patient inhales and exhales. Changes in the position of the floating bell reflect changes in __________.

3. A pen recorder then graphs the changes in lung volume on a chart called a ________.

1. breathing tube

2. lung volume

3. spirogram

What are the 4 types of lung volume?

1. tidal volume (VT)

2. inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

3. expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

4. residual volume (RV)

- The volume of air inspired or expired during a normal breathing cycle

- equals 500 mL

tidal volume

- The maximum volume of air that can be inspired after a normal inspiration

- equals 3100 mL in men and 1900 mL in women

inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

- The maximum volume of air that can be expired after a normal expiration
- equals 1200 mL in men and 700 mL in women

expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

- The volume of air that remains in the lungs after a maximum expiration

- equals 1200 mL in men and 1100 mL in women

- cannot be determined using a spirometer

residual volume (RV)

What are the 4 types of lung capacity?

1. functional residual capacity (FRC)

2. inspiratory capacity (IC)

3. vital capacity (VC)

4. total lung capacity (TLC)

- The volume of air in the lungs at the end of a normal expiration

- The sum of the ERV and the RV

- equals 2400 mL in men and 1800 mL in women

- cannot be determined using a spirometer

functional residual capacity (FRC)

- the maximum volume of air that can be inspired after a normal expiration

- the sum of the VT and IRV

- equals 3600 mL in men and 2400 mL in women

inspiratory capacity (IC)

- the maximum volume of air that can be expired after a maximum inspiration

- the sum of the ERV, VT, and IRV

- equals 4800 mL in men and 3100 mL in women

vital capacity (VC)

- The total volume of air in the lungs after a maximum inspiration

- the sum of all lung volumes

- equals 6000 mL in men and 4200 mL in women

total lung capacity (TLC)

- The amount of air that flows into and out of the entire respiratory system per minute

- equals the product of the tidal volume (VT) and the respiratory rate (RR)

respiratory minute volume (V̇)

V̇ = VT × RR

Under normal, resting conditions, VT = 500 mL/ breath and the RR = 12 breaths/min. Therefore, the normal V̇ = _____ mL/min

6000 mL/min

Not all of the air that flows into the respiratory system actually enters the alveoli where gas exchange takes place; instead, some of the air remains in the ______________.

anatomical dead space

- The volume of air that is located in the conduction zone (i.e. the nose, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and nonrespiratory bronchioles), which contains air that does not undergo gas exchange

- equals 150 mL/breath

anatomical dead space (VD)

- The amount of air that actually flows into and out of the respiratory zone (respiratory bronchioles and alveoli) to undergo gas exchange

- can be calculated from the following equation: V̇ A = (VT -VD) x RR

alveolar minute volume (V̇A)

Under normal, resting circumstances, VT = 500 mL/breath, VD = 150 mL/breath, and the RR = 12 breaths/min. Therefore, a normal V̇A = ____ mL/min.

4200 mL/min

surgical procedure in which the shape of the external nose is altered

rhinoplasty

- inflammation of the larynx that is mpost often caused by a respiratory infection or irritants

- found almost exclusively in individuals who smoke

laryngitis and cancer of the larynx

- a skin incision is followed by a short longitudinal incision into the trachea below the cricoid cartilage

- a tube is inserted into the mouth or nose and passed inferiorly through the larynx and trachea

tracheostomy and intubation

- in certain conditions, the pleural cavities may fill with air, blood, or pus

- the collapse of a part of a lung, or rarely an entire lung

- pneumothorax, hemothorax

- atelectasis

- the common cold

- caused by a virus, includes chills, fever, headache, and muscle aches

- also known as swine flu, type of influenza

coryza, seasonal influenza, and H1N1 influenza

breathing disorder of premature newborns in which the alveoli do not remain open due to lack of surfactant

respiratory distress syndrome (RDS)

- major clinical application of Henry's law

- the use of pressure to cause more O2 to dissolve in the blood

hyperbaric oxygenation

- elevated blood levels of CO cause this*

- can cause the lips and oral mucosa to appear bright, cherry-red

- without prompt treatment this is fatal

carbon monoxide poisoning

a deficiency of O2 at the tissue level

hypoxia

this may cause a person to become easily "winded" during even moderate exercise because several factors decrease respiratory efficiency

effects of smoking on respiratory efficiency

a disorder characterized by chronic airway inflammation, airway hypersensitivity to a variety of stimuli, and airway obstruction

asthma

- a type of respiratory disorder characterized by chronic and recurrent obstruction of airflow (COPD)

- destruction of the walls of the alveoli, producing abnormally large airspaces that remain filled during exhalation

- excessive secretion of broncjhial mucus accompanied by a productive cough that lasts for at least 3 months of the year for 2 successive years

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

emphysema

bronchitis

the leading cause of cancer death in both males and females, accounting for 160,000 deaths annually

lung cancer

an acute infection or inflammation of the alveoli

pneumonia

infectious, communicable disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis

tuberculosis

an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the interstitial spaces and alveoli of the lungs

pulmonary edema

the sudden, unexpected death of an apparently healthy infant during sleep

sudden infant death syndrome

first-aid procedure designed to clear the airways of obstructing objects

abdominal thrust (Heimlich) maneuver

oxygen starvation due to low atmospheric oxygen or interference with ventilation, external respiration, or internal respiration

asphyxia

inhalation of foreign substance such as water, food, or a foreign body into the bronchial tree

aspiration

visual examination of the bronchi through a bronchoscope (flexible tubular instrument that is passed through the mouth down to the bronchi

bronchoscopy

a repeated cycle of irregular breathing that begins with shallow breaths that increase in depth and rapidity and then decrease and cease altogether for 15 to 20 secs.

Cheyne-Stokes respiration

painful or labored breathing

dyspnea

loss of blood from the nose due to trauma, infection, allergy, malignant growths, or bleeding disorders

epistaxis

sounds sometimes heard in the lungs that resemble bubbling or rattling ("murmurs" of the lungs)

rales

apparatus fitted to a mask over the nose and mouth used to support ventilation

respirator

condition in which the respiratory system either cannot supply sufficient O2 to maintain metabolism or cannot eliminate enough CO2 to prevent respiratory acidosis

respiratory failure

chronic or acute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nose due to viruses, bacteria, or irritants

rhinitis

disorder in which a person repeatedly stops breathing for 10 or more seconds while sleeping

sleep apnea

mucus and other fluids from the air passages that is expectorated (expelled by coughing)

sputum

inflammation of the pharynx caused by the bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes

strep throat

rapid breathing rate

tachypnea

a whistling, squeaking, or musical high-pitched sound during breathing resulting from a partially obstructed airway

wheeze