1. Blood is a type of ________ that consists of cells surrounded by a fluid extracellular matrix.

2. Blood, blood vessels, and the heart collectively form the ________.

1. connective tissue

2. cardiovascular system

Physical Characteristics

1. Volume = ___

2. pH = ___

3. Temperature = ___

4. % Body weight = ___

5. Viscosity = ___

1. 5 L

2. 7.4

3. 38°C (100.4°F)

4. 8%

5. thicker than water

Blood has 4 major functions:

1. Transports __________, __________, __________, and __________.

2. Provides the body with ________ against foreign microbes and their toxins.

3. Regulates the ________ composition and volume of body fluids.

4. Protects the body from excessive fluid loss by ________.

1. dissolved gases, nutrients, nitrogenous wastes, and hormones

2. immunity (defense)

3. electrolyte (ion)

4. clotting

Blood consists of two major components: ______, which is the fluid matrix, and the ______, which are the cells.

- plasma

- formed elements

Plasma

1. Constitutes __% of blood

2. What color is it when separated?

1. 55%

2. straw-colored (light yellow)

Plasma

1. What is its main component? Percentage?

2. Solutes constitute __% of plasma. Includes: nutrients, electrolytes, nitrogenous wastes, hormones.

3. Proteins constitute __% of plasma.

4. What are the 3 types of proteins in plasma?

1. Water (92%)

2. 1%

3. 7%

4. albumins, antibodies, fibrinogen

1. This is the most abundant plasma proteins.

2. Where are they produced?

3. They provide the blood with ______.

4. They serve as transporters for ________ in the blood.

1. Albumins

2. Liver

3. viscosity

4. hydrophobic hormones

1. These are also called immunoglobins.

2. They function in ________.

3. They are also produced by ________, which are derived from B cells.

1. antibodies

2. immunity

3. plasma cells

These plasma proteins are also produced in the liver and function as a participant in the blood clotting process.

- fibrinogen

Formed elements

1. The ______ found in blood.

2. Constitute __% of blood.

3. The three types of formed elements are: _______, _______, and _______. 

1. cells

2. 45%

3. erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets

These are called red blood cells (RBCs) and they make up __% of formed elements, and consequently are the main cell type in blood.

- erythrocytes

- 99%

1. RBCs have a structure that resembles ________.

2. The diameter of a RBC is typically ___.

3. A capillary has a diameter of 5 to 8 µm, hence RBCs must bend as they travel through capillaries; in addition RBCs often stack on top of one another forming a ______.

4. A mature RBC lacks ______; consequently it cannot reproduce nor repair itself and, therefore, only lasts for about ___ days.

1. biconcave discs

2. 8 µm

3. rouleaux

4. organelles; 120

1. A mature RBC contains ________, a red protein that is responsible for the color of RBCs (as well as the color of blood).

2. Each RBC has millions of these molecules located in the _______.

1. hemoglobin

2. cytosol

1. Hemoglobin is produced when the RBC is immature and still has a nucleus. It consists of 4 protein subunits referred to as ______. What are the 4 subunits called?

2. Each of these contain a red _____ group, which consists of a ________ that surrounds an ________ in the center.

3. Hemoglobin binds to ___ and ___ and transports these gases through the blood.

1. globins; α1, α2, β1, β2

2. heme; porphyrin ring; iron ion (Fe+2)

3. O2 and CO2

The ______ in each heme group of a hemoglobin molecule can bind to __ molecule of O2. Since there are 4 heme groups, one hemoglobin molecule can bind to a maximum of __ O2 molecules.

- iron ion

- 1

- 4

1. A single heme-polypeptide unit can exist in two forms: _______ in which no O2 is bound, and _______ in which O2 is bound. 

2. Arterial blood is _______ because nearly all the hemoglobin molecules exist in the ________ form.

3. Venous blood is _______ because it contains a significant number of ________ molecules.

1. deoxyhemoglobin; oxyhemoglobin

2. bright red; oxyhemoglobin

3. dark red; deoxyhemoglobin

1. Certain amino acids in each globin subunit of a hemoglobin molecule bind to ___, forming a complex called ________.

2. RBCs transport ___ from the lungs to body cells and ___ from body cells to the lungs. The transport function occurs via ______.

1. CO2; carbaminohemoglobin

2. O2; CO2; hemoglobin

Leukocytes

1. Constitute less than __% of formed elements.

2. Are also called _______ because they lack hemoglobin and are clear.

3. What are the two types of leukocytes?

1. 1%

2. white blood cells

3. granular leukocytes and agranular leukocytes

1. What is another name for granular leukocytes?

2. They have visible ________ (secretory vesicles such as lysosomes) under the light microscope.

3. What are the 3 types of granular leukocytes? What are the two characteristics?

1. granulocytes

2. cytoplasmic granules

3. neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils; color of the cytoplasmic granules and the number of lobes of the nucleus

1. What is the most common type of leukocyte?

2. They contain cytoplasmic granules that stain _______.

3. Their nucleus had __-__ lobes connected by thin strands.

1. neutrophils

2. light pink

3. 3-4 lobes

1. What is another name for neutrophils?

2. Neutrophils participate in ________ by phagocytizing foreign microbes that invade the body.

1. polymorphonuclear leukocyte

2. nonspecific immunity

1. What granular leukocytes have granules that stain orange to red?

2. Their nucleus has __ lobes.

3. They participate in ________ by phagocytizing foreign microbes that invade the body.

1. eosinophils

2. 2 lobes (bilobed)

3. nonspecific immunity

1. What leukocytes contain granules that stain dark purple?

2. Their nucleus is _____, often shaped like the letter S or U.

1. basophils

2. lobed

1. Basophils participate in nonspecific immunity by promoting _______ in repsonse to tissue damage cause by injury or foreign microbes that invade the body.

2. Basophils promote this action by releasing a substance called ______.

1. inflammation

2. histamine

1. These are also referred to as agranulocytes.

2. They also lack a _____ nucleus.

3. What are the 2 major types of these leukocytes?

1. agranular leukocytes

2. lobed

3. lymphocytes and monocytes

1. A _______ has a round nucleus that takes up most of the space in a cell, leaving only a thin peripheral ring of cytoplasm.

2. What are the 2 types of these agranular leukocytes?

3. What are their functions?

1. lymphocyte

2. B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells)

3. participate in specific immunity

1. A _______ contains a nucleus that is shaped like a kidney bean or horseshoe.

2. They participate in _______ by phagocytizing foreign microbes. During this process they develop into huge cells called _______.

1. monocyte

2. nonspecific immunity; macrophages (most phagocytic leukocytes)

1. ______ constitute less than 1% of the formed elements.

2. Also called _______.

3. These cause blood to clot, a process called _______. Both fibrinogen and factor VIII are proteins that are involved in this process.

1. Platelets

2. thrombocytes

3. hemostasis

What are the two ways that the components of blood can be separated?

- blood centrifugation - spinning of blood in a centrifuge tube

- blood standing -- let a drop of blood stand for a period of time, gradually the blood will separate into a central clot and a peripheral region of serum.

The ______ are heaviest and settle at the bottom of the centrifuge tube. The _____ is least dense and is found at the top of the tube. Between these two is a thin layer of ______ and _____.

- RBCs

- plasma

- white blood cells and platelets

1. What is the process of calculating the % of blood that is RBCs called? 

2. How is it calculated?

3. What are the typical units for men and women?

1. hematocrit

2. dividing the length of the tube that consists of RBCs by the total length of all the components in the tube, and then multiplying by 100

3. Men = 45 hct. / Women = 40 hct.

Serum is plasma without its _______.

- clotting proteins (fibrinogen, factor VIII)

Explain the life span of the following blood cells:

1. erythrocyte

2. neutrophil, eosinophil, basophil

3. monocyte/macrophage

4. B and T lymphocytes

5. platelets

1. 120 days

2. hours to days

3. days to months

4. decades

5. 10 days

1. The process of blood cell formation is called _______.

2. It is also referred to as _______.

3. Occurs in ________, which is found in spongy bone.

4. Accomplished via stem cells called _______.

1. hematopoiesis

2. hemopoiesis

3. red bone marrow

4. hemocytoblasts

Hemocytoblasts

1. _______ develop into mature erythrocytes.

2. _______ is the formation of RBCs. It involves these three nutritional requirements?

3. Occurs when the kidney releases the hormone _______, in response to low oxygen in tissues and cells (______).

1. proerythroblasts

2. erythropoiesis; iron, folic acid, vitamin B12

3. erythropoietin; hypoxia

Hemocytoblasts

1. _______ develop into granular leukocytes.

2. _______ develop into lymphocytes (both B and T cells).

3. _______ develop into monocytes.

4. All three of these cells are part of a collective process called _______.

5. _______ develop into platelets. 

6. _______ is the formation of platelets.

1. myeloblasts

2. lymphoblasts

3. monoblasts

4. leukopoiesis (formation of WBCs; stimulated by cytokines)

5. megakaryoblasts

6. thrombopoiesis (stimulated by thrombopoietin)

Blood Groups

The cell membranes of RBCs contain _______, while the plasma contains ______ that destroy foreign antigens.

- self antigens

- antibodies

ABO Blood Group

1. The ABO blood group is based on two glycolipid _______ called A and B.

2. Type A blood contains only the __ antigen in the cell membranes of RBCs.

3. Type B blood contains only the __ antigen in the membranes of RBCs.

4. Type AB blood contains _______ antigens in RBC membranes.

5. Type O blood contains _______ antigens in RBC membranes.

1. antigens (agglutinogens)

2. A

3. B

4. both A and B

5. neither A nor B

ABO Blood Group

1. Plasma usually contains ______ that react with A or B antigens.

2. Type A blood contains only _______ in the plasma.

3. Type B blood contains only _______ in the plasma.

4. Type AB contains _______ in the plasma.

5. Type O contains _______ in the plasma.

1. antibodies (agglutinins)

2. anti-B antibodies

3. anti-A antibodies

4. neither anti-A antibodies or anti-B antibodies

5. both anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies

ABO Blood Group

1. When a person receives the wrong blood type, the antigens and antibodies interact, causing ______ of blood.

2. This can be fatal because RBCs in this type of blood are at a standstill and no _____ will be delivered to the cells of the body; this leads to _____ of RBCs.

1. agglutination (clumping)

2. oxygen; hemolysis (rupturing)

ABO Blood Group

1. Type __ blood is called the universal recipient because it lacks ________.

2. Type __ blood is called the universal donor because it lacks _______.

1. AB; anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies

2. O; A antigens and B antigens

ABO Blood Group

1. What is another self antigen that may be present in the cell membranes of RBCs?

2. Why is it named this?

3. If this is present in the RBC membrane, what is it called? What if it's absent?

1. Rh antigen

2. First described in the Rhesus monkey

3. Present = Rh+, absent = Rh-

- Also known as venipuncture

- A common site for this is the median cubital vein

- Can also be done through the finger or heel stick

- In an arterial stick, it is done from an artery

Withdrawing blood

- Needed to diagnose certain blood disorders (such as leukemia)

- Samples are usually taken from the iliac crest of the hip

Bone marrow examination

- Because RBCs transport oxygen, athletes have tried several means of increasing their RBC count, known as _______.

- A natural form of this is altitude training. At higher altitudes the body increases production of RBCs.

Blood doping

- This is a very valuable test that screens for anemia and various infections

- Includes the count of RBC, WBC, and platelets per microliter of whole blood

- The amount of hemoglobin per milliliter of blood is also determined

Complete blood count (CBC)

- At low doses, ______ inhibits vasoconstriction and platelet aggregation by blocking thromboxane A2. It also reduces the chance of thrombus formation.

- _______ are chemical substances that are injected into the body to dissolve blood clots that have already formed to restore circulation.

- Aspirin

- Thrombolytic agents

- This is the most common problem with Rh incompatibility

- If a small amount of RH+ blood leaks from the fetus through the placenta into the bloodstream of an RH- mother, the mother will start to make anti-Rh antibodies

- Usually occurs at birth so the mother's first child is not affected, however is she becomes pregnant again, agglutination and *this* can happen.

Hemolytic disease of the newborn

- Patients who are at increased risk of forming blood clots may receive _______.

Anticoagulants

- A condition in which the blood doesn't have enough healthy red blood cells.

- The most common type of this is cause by iron deficiency.

- Inadequate intake of vitamin B12 or folic acid cause megaloblastic _____.

Anemia

- The RBCs of a person that contain Hb-S, an abnormal kind of hemoglobin. When Hb-S gives up O2 to the interstitial fluid, it forms long, stiff, rodlike structures that bend the erythrocyte into this* shape

- These cells can rupture easily

Sickle-cell disease

- An inherited deficiency of clotting in which bleeding may occur spontaneously or after only minor trauma.

- Oldest known hereditary bleeding disorder

Hemophilia

- A group of red bone marrow cancers in which abnormal white blood cells multiply uncontrollably

- The accumulation of cancerous WBCs in red bone marrow interferes with the production of RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.

- O2-carrying capacity of blood is reduced

Leukemia

slightly bluish/dark-purple skin discoloration, most easily seen in the nail beds and mucous membranes due to an increased quantity of methemoglobin, hemoglobin not combined with oxygen in systemic blood

Cyanosis

loss of a large amount of blood; can be either internal (from blood vessels into tissues) or external (from blood vessels directly to the surface of the body)

Hemorrhage

- An abnormal yellowish discoloration of the sclerae of the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes due to excess bilirubin (yellow-orange pigment) in the blood

- Three different types are prehepatic, hepatic, and extrahepatic

Jaundice

A technician who specializes in withdrawing blood

Phlebotomist

- Toxins or disease-causing bacteria in the blood

- Also called "blood poisoning"

Septicemia

Opening of a vein for the withdrawal of blood

Venesection

Blood containing all formed elements, plasma, and plasma solutes in natural concentrations

Whole blood