Gross Anatomy-Can be seen w/naked eye

• Surface anatomy- can be seen on surface of body
• Regional anatomy- concentrate on specific region
• Systemic Anatomy- Going through different organ system

Developmental anatomy-How we develop from cell

• Embryology- study of embryo

Microscopic anatomy

• Cytology-Study of Cells
• Histology- Study of tissues

Cell physiology

Systemic physiology

• Renal physiology, cardiovascular physiology, neurophysiology

Special physiology

• Exercise physiology, physiology of a specific disease or abnormality

Levels of organization and investigation

(smallest to largest)

• Chemical Level- interaction of atoms & biochem
• Cell Level- Functional unit of life
• Tissue Level- Group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them
• Organ Level- Two or more tissues functioning together
• Organ System Level- Group of organs working together-have a common set of functions
• Organisms Level- Any living thing

Man: young, healthy 154lbs or 70kg @room temp

Woman: 128lbs or 58kg

Integumentary System

• Skin
• Forms the external body covering
• Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails
• Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes vitamin D

• Composed of bone, cartilage and ligaments
• Protects and supports body organs
• Provides the framework for muscles
• Site of blood cell formation in bone marrow
• Stores minerals

• Composed of muscles and tendons
• Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression
• Maintains posture
• Produces heat
• Tendons hold muscle to bone

• Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves
• Is the fast-acting control system of the body
• Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and glands
• Fast acting

• Hormones
• Major Organs- Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal gland, gonads, endocrine tissues in other systems
• Functions- Directs long term changes in the activities of other organ systems, adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body, controls many structural and functional changes during development
• Slow response system

• Composed of the heart and blood vessels
• The heart pumps blood
• The blood vessels transport blood throughout the body

• Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lumph nodes, and lymphatic vessels-blood cells
• Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood
• Disposes of debris in the lymphatic steam
• Houses white blood cells involved with immunity

• Compsed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
• Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
• Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the blood
• Maintaining blood pressure

• Composed of prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferens
• Main function is the production of offspring
• Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
• Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract

• Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina
• Main funtion is the production of offspring
• Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
• Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus
• Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn

The body maintains a relatively constant internal environment. 

Body and cells maintain homeostasis

Components

• Receptor-monitors the value of some variable
• Control Center- Establishes the set point
• Effector- Can change the value of the variable (muscles and glands)
• Stimulus- Deviation from the set point detected by the receptor
• Response- Produced by the effector

The output shuts off the original stimulus. Keeps system in dynamic equilibrium

Any deviation from the set point is made smaller (resisted) it moves back to the set point

Most systems in our body have negative feedback

Ex. Regulation of blood pressure, body temp, or blood sugar level

When the response to a deviation makes the deviation greater

Unusual in normal, healthy individuals, leads away from homeostasis and can result in death

Ex. childbirth, after hemmerage blood pressure drops and heart's ability to pump blood decreases

Often detrimental to our health

Protect Delicate organs

partition body and allow movement

Lined by endothelial cells

Two major cavities

• Posterior Cavity-cranial cavity and spinal cavity
• Anterior cavity- thoracic and abdominopelvis cavaties

Cavity linings

Lines cavities that are closed to the external environment

Lines most of the abdominal cavity

Organs lie outside the peritoneal cavity

Kidney, Pancreas, Duodenum, Rectum, 

Oral and Digestive- Mouth and cavities of the digestive organs

Nasal- Located within the posterior to the nose

Orbital- House the eyes

Middle Ear- Contains bones (ossicles) that transmit sound vibrations

Synovial- Joint Cavities

Sagittal Plane

Mid-sagittal

Runs parallel to the long axis of the body and divides the body into left and right sides

Divides body into equal halves

Transverse

Cross sectional plane

Cranial Cavity

Spinal Cavity

Thoracic Cavity

Pleural cavity-lungs

paricardial cavity-heart

Diaphragm divides anterior cavity into thoracic and abdominal pelvic

Abdominopelvic cavity

Abdominal cavity-abdomen

pelvic cavity- pelvis

Right hypochondriac epigasatric left hypochondriac

Right lumbar umbilical left lumbar

Right iliac hypogastric left iliac

Major Elements in the body

(most abundant to least abundant)

Elements with similar numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons

Common isotopes:

Tritium Hydrogen 13

Carbon 14

Phosphorus 32

Negative charged particles that surround nucleus

Outermost shell determines reactivity of the element or its chemical property

Some atoms add an electron from another atom and some atoms give up electrons

Atoms that have more or less electrons than protons are ions

Calcium Ca+2

Sodium Na+

Potassium K+

Hydrogen H+

Hydroxide OH-

Chloride Cl-

Bicarbonate HCO3-

Attraction between positive cations and negative anions. 

It is an electric bond

Weak fall apart easily in water

Create large crystalline structures

Ex: Salts (NaCl)

An ionic compound where the cation is not hydrogen and the anion is not hydroxide

Examples:

NaCl Sodium Chloride

CaCl2 Calcium Chloride

NaHCO3 Sodium Bicarbonate

KCl Potassium Chloride

Na2HPO4 Sodium Phosphate

Soluble salts that will conduct an electric current in solution

CaCl2

Na2HPO4

MgCl2

KCl

NaHCO3

NaCl

Atoms that share electrons

Single covalent bonds share 1 pair H-H

Double covalent bonds share 2 pairs O=O

Triple covalent bond share 3 pairs N=-N

Can have polar and non polar covalent bonds

Electrons not shared equally because one nucleus attracts the electrons more than the other does.

This results in one side of the molecule having a more negative charge and another part of the molecule having a more positive charge.

Weak forces that affect the shape and properties of compounds (cannot make molecules themselves)

Important for forming the shape of proteins and other molecules

Thick or gelatenous solutions usually of protein or other large molecules

Interstitial fluid between cells

Jello

Large molecules that are not in solution but will eventually settle out

Sand in glass of water

Protein and lipids in suspension in our blood

Most important constituent of the body 2/3 of body

Many compounds soluble

High specific heat capacity

Compounds that dissolve or interact readily with water

NaCl, sugar, alcohol

Compounds that do not dissolve or interact with water

Oil or fats

Dissolve or interact readily with fat or oil

O2, CO2, Alcohol

A measure of the concentration of free hydrogen ions (H+) in solution

Neutral pH=7 pure water

Acidic pH <7

Basic pH >7 alkaline

Water can normally dissociate into free hydrogen ions and free hydroxide ions

pH <7

Release hydrogen ions into solution and lower pH

Strong acids completely ionize

Weak acids do not completely ionize they act as buffers

Remove hydrogen ions from solution and raise the pH

Strong bases completely ionize

Weak bases do not completely ionize they act as buffers

Synthesis (dehydration/condensation) A+B-->AB

Decomposition (hydrolysis) AB-->A+B

Exchange AB+CD-->AD+BC

Some reactions are reversible

The sum of all reactions in the body

Provides for the capture, storage, and release of energy

The break down (decomposition) of complex molecules.

Releases energy

Synthesis of new molecules

(uses energy)

The capacity to do work

ATP is body energy source

Energy of motion

It does work

Active energy

Reduce energy of activation without being permanently changed or used up

promote chemical reactions

Essential chemical compounds obtained from the diet

If eat glucose or amino acids its a nutrient

Molecules synthesized (anabolism) or broken down inside the body (catabolism)

If make glucose or amino acid its a metabolite

Contain carbon and hydrogen as their primary structural component

Always include Carbon Hydrogen and sometimes Oxygen

Large complex molecules because C can have 4 covalent bonds

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Proteins

Nucleic Acids

Often created by making strings or polymers from monomers

COOH

acts as acid releasing H to become COO-

Fatty Acids, Amino acids

R-NH2

Can accept or release H depending on pH

Amino acids

OH

Strong bases dissociate to release OH- may link molecules through dehydration synthesis

Carbs, Fatty acids, amino acids

PO4^3-

May link other molecules to form larger structures may also store energy in high-energy bonds

Phospholipids, nucleic acids, high-energy compounds

Include sugar and starches

Ratio of C:H:O 1:2:1

Major funtion=use of energy

A protein with a some sugar attached

Prefix is what is attached

Simple sugar

Pentose=5 C

Hexose= 6 C

Compound sugar (2 monosaccharide)

Sucrose

Lactose

Maltose

Complex sugars (starches)

Large chains of monosaccharides

linear or long branched

Starches, Glycogen, Cellulose

Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures

Can be mirror images D or L

We can only use D sugars and L amino acids

Disaccharide

Glucose and fructose

table sugar

Lactose

Disaccharide

1 molecule of glucose 1 molecule of galactose

Milk sugar

Disaccharide

2 molecules of glucose

Bread

Ratio of C:H is 1:2 very little O

Generally insoluble in water but carried by special proteins in blood

Women contain more lipids than men

Gram to gram lipids generate about twice as much energy as carbs when catabolized

fatty acids

glyderides

steroids

phospholipids

glycolipids

Only difference between fats and oils is their melting point due to C=C in structure

Consist of carboxylic acid group and a fatty acid tail

Saturated and Unsaturated and Polyunsaturated

Fatty acids each carbon atom of the tail has 4 single bonds

All single bond

Lipids consisting of 1 molecule of glycerol and attached fatty acids

Fats and Oils are triglycerides

Mono and Diglycerides are not fats but are lipids

Monoglycerides contain 1 fatty acid

Diglycerides contain 2 fatty acids

Triglycerides contain 3 fatty acids

Involved in cell membrane structure

Include sex hormones and hormones regulating metabolism

Cholesterol comes from food and is naturally synthesized in the body

Structural proteins (actin, cytoskeletin, collegen)

Contractile proteins (movement, muscle proteins-actin myosin)

Transport Proteins (carry lipids or gases in the blood)

Enzymes (metabolic regulation, make chemicals in the body, membrane transport proteins)

Buffering proteins

Antibodies (immune defense)

Communication/Regulation (hormones/receptors)

contain an amino group, a carboxylic group and a radical group

 20 common amino acids

In adults 8 are essential (not made in body)

Children 10 essential

Strongest covalent bond in body

Attaches amino acids together

Large polypeptides or groups of polypeptides

More than 100 a.a.=protein

Less than 100 a.a.=polypeptide

Can't branch

Structure determined by interactions of R groups of amino acids

Primary- Sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain

Seconday- Folding and bending of chain formations of helices or of pleated sheets caused by hydrogen bonding

Beta sheet and alpha helix

Tertiary- Three dimensional shape caused in part by S-S bonds and other side chain reactions between amino acids. DSHHIV interaction of R groups

Quaternary- Two or more proteins associated as a functional unit

Forms linear structures, sheets etc linear type structure (collagen)

Collagen most abundant in body

Extremely large molecules made up of subunits know as nucleotides

Store and process information at the molecular level

DNA and RNA

Composed of sugar phosphate and base

Sugar=Deoxyribose-DNA Ribose-RNA

DNA- A T C G

RNA- A U C G

DNA- in nucleus, genetic material, replicates direct protein synthesis, deoxyribose, ATCG Double helix

RNA-Cytoplasm, carry genetic instruction for protein synthesis, ribose, AUCG, single stranded straight or folded.

Cells store energy as chemical energy in compounds that contain high energy bonds

A high energy bond is a bond that when broken will release energy

Adenoside Triphosphate ATP