What is the Feedback System? Name the three basic components.

- Cycle of events: body is monitored and re-monitored. Each monitored variable is termed a controlled condition.

- Three basic components are: receptor, control center, effector

What is a receptor?

- A body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition (such as body temperature) and sends input to the control center.

- Ex: Specialized nerve endings in the skin act as temperature receptors

The _________ sets the range of values to be maintained -- usually this is done by the brain.

- control center

- Evaluates input received from receptors and generates output command (nerve impulses, hormones, or other chemical agents)

The ________ receives output from the control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition.

- effector

- Nearly every organ or tissue can serve as an effector. (Body temp drops; brain sends impulse to skeletal muscles to contract; shivering generates heat)

What is a negative feedback system? Provide an example.

- Reverses a change in a controlled condition.

- Ex: regulation of blood pressure (force exerted by blood as it presses against the walls of blood vessels)

What is a positive feedback system? Provide an example.

- Strengthens or reinforces a change in one of the body's controlled conditions

- Ex: Normal child birth (contractions)

What is the Law of Conservation of Energy?

- The total mass of reactants equals the total mass of the products 

pH < 7 is ______

pH > 7 is ______

- acidic

- alkaline (basic)

The pH scale is a _________, not a linear scale. Because of the "_______" in the formula, the lower the number, the higher the H+ concentration.

- logarithmic scale

- negative

What is the difference in pH in a solution of pH=11 from a solution that is pH=8?

- 1000 times

(11 to 10 = 10, 11 to 9 = 100, 11 to 8 = 1000)

The pH values of different parts of the body are maintained fairly constant by _________, which usually consist of a weak acid and a weak base.

- buffer systems

- Buffers convert strong acidic and strong bases into weak acids and weak bases.

What are the ions associated with an acidic solution? A base or alkaline solution?

- Acidic ions = H+

- Alkaline/Basic ions = OH-

What are the six main building blocks of life?

- Cells!

- sulfur, phosphorous, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and hydrogen

What are the main elements that make up the human body?

- oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorous

What is the principle polysaccharide in the human body? Where is it stored?

- Glycogen; it is store in the liver or skeletal muscles

What are the three principle parts of a cell?

- Plasma membrane: cell's outer boundary; selective permeable layer

- Cytoplasm: gelatin-like substance, plus structural fibers and organelles (but not nucleus)

- Nucleus: contains the genetic library of the cell

________ are important membrane components. Both _____ and _____ regions make them soluble in both water and fats (this is called amphipathic -- they are both hydrophilic and lipophilic).

- Phospholipids

- polar

- nonpolar

In a solution, the _______ dissolves the _______.

Substances which contain polar covalent bonds and dissolve in water are ________, while substances which contain nonpolar covalent bonds are ________.

- solvent, solute

- hydrophilic, hydrophobic

When needed, the high energy phosphate is hydrolyzed by the

enzyme ______ to release the stored energy, leaving ADP

(adenosine diphosphate).

- ATPase

How many levels are proteins structurally organized? What are they?

- 4: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary

The resulting shape of a protein greatly influences its ability to recognize and bind to other molecules. ________ of a protein by a hostile environment causes loss of its characteristic shape and function.

- Denaturation

Functions of the membrane:

Some integral proteins of the membrane are ________.

________ selectively move substances through the membrane.

________ -- for cellular recognition, a _______ is a molecule that binds with a receptor.

________ catalyze chemical reactions.

Others act as ________.

- ion channels

- Transporters

- Receptors; ligand

- Enzymes

- cell-identity markers

________ involve substances moving across the cell membranes without the input of any energy - they are said to move “with” or “down” their concentration gradient ([gradient], where [ ] indicates “concentration”).

________ involve the use of energy, primarily from the breakdown of ATP, to move a substance against its [gradient].

- Passive processes

- Active processes

What are some passive processes?

- Diffusion of solutes

- Diffusion of water (called osmosis)

- Facilitated diffusion (requires a specific channel or a carrier molecule, but no energy is used

________ is the passive spread of particles through random motion, from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration.

What affects the rate?

- Diffusion

- It is affected by the amount of substance and the steepness of the concentration gradient. (temp, surface area, distance)

What is phagocytosis?

- The process by which a cell - often a phagocyte or a protist - engulfs a solid particle to form an internal compartment known as a phagosome

- Ex: white blood cell

What is endocytosis?

- A form of bulk transport in which a cell transports molecules into the cell by engulfing them in an energy-using process

______: a solution having the same osmotic pressure as some other solution

______: having a lower osmotic pressure than a particular fluid, typically a body fluid or intracellular fluid.

______: having a higher osmotic pressure than a particular fluid, typically a body fluid or intracellular fluid.

- Isotonic

- Hypotonic

- Hypertonic

________ is a double-membrane that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.

________ is a spherical body that produces ribosomes.

________ are the cell's hereditary units, control activities and structure of the cell.

________ are numerous openings in the nuclear envelope, control movement of substances between nucleus and cytoplasm.

________ are long molecules of DNA combined with protein molecules (histones).

- Nuclear envelope

- Nucleolus

- Genes

- Nuclear pores

- Chromosomes

What organelle is more prevalent in physiologically active cells and has inner and outer membranes, and contains its own DNA? Define the Cristae and Matrix

- Mitochondria. It is the powerhouse of the cell -- creates ATP.

- Cristae: series of folds of the inner membrane

- Matrix: the large central fluid-filled cavity

Define organism and name the six important life processes.

- Consists of a collection of organ systems.

- Metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, reproduction

1. What is metabolism?

2. What does catabolic mean?

3. What does anabolic mean?

1. The sum of all the catabolic and anabolic chemical processes that occur in the body.

2. Breaking down

3. Building up

1. What are groups of cells that work together to perform a similar function?

2. What are the four basic types?

1. Tissues.

2. Epithelium, Connective, Muscle, and Nerve

Define homeostasis.

- A condition of equilibrium (balance) in the body's internal environment. It is a dynamic condition meant to keep body functions in the narrow range compatible with maintaining life.

Define an organ system and give an example.

- Consists of related organs with a common function.

- Ex: Digestive system; handles all aspects of taking in and breaking down food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste. It includes all the organs of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

How many organ systems are in the human body? Name them.

- 11; Circulatory, Digestive, Endocrine, Integumentary, Lymphatic, Muscular, Nervous, Renal/Urinary, Reproductive, Respiratory, and Skeletal

Name the levels of organization from smallest to largest.

- chemical (atomic and molecular), cellular, tissue, organ, system, organism

________ are formed by the atoms of molecules sharing one, two, or three pairs of their valence electrons. They are the strongest bonds. Single, double, or triple are formed by sharing two or three pairs of electrons.

- Covalent bonds

Covalent bonds may be ______ or ______. In a ________, atoms share the electrons equally; they are the most common type of covalent bond.

- nonpolar

- polar

- nonpolar covalent bond

_________ are formed by the unequal sharing of electrons between atoms.

- Polar covalent bonds

- They are extremely important because the all-important water molecule makes use of this bond.

Units of matter of all chemical elements are called _______. An ________ is a quantity of matter composed of atoms of the same type.  What are the three subatomic particles?

- atoms

- element

- Proton, neutron, electron

Define atomic number.

- Number of protons in the nucleus that determines the element

Define mass number.

- Sum of protons and neutrons in an atom and indicates how much an atom "weighs" -- this is always a whole number

Define atomic mass.

- (atomic weight) is the average mass of all naturally occurring isotopes -- since this is an average, it is not exactly a whole number

______ are atoms that have given up or gained an electron in their outer electron shell (also called the valence shell).

- Ions

______ are formed when atoms share electrons.

- Molecules

________ form when an atom loses or gains a valence electron. ______ are positively charged ions that have given up one or more electrons (they are electron donors). ______ are negatively charged ions that have picked up one or more electrons that another atom has lost (they are electron acceptors).

- Ionic bonds

- Cations

- Anions

________ vesicles that form from the Golgi complex and contain powerful digestive enzymes.

- Lysosomes

________ consists of 3–20 flattened, membranous sacs called cisternae. What does it do?

- Golgi complex (apparatus)

- Modifies, sorts, packages proteins for transport to different destinations. (Proteins are transported by various vesicles).

The ________ is connected to the nuclear envelope and is a series of flattened sacs that has a surface studded with ribosomes. It produces various proteins.

- Rough ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum)

The ________ is a network of membrane tubules, does not have ribosome, and synthesize fatty acids and steroids. It also detoxifies certain drugs.

- Smooth ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum)

1. ______ are short, hair-like projections from the cell surface, move fluids along a cell surface.

2. ______ are longer than cilia, move an entire cell; only example is the sperm cell’s tail.

1. Cilia

2. Flagella

The ________ is located near the nucleus, consists of two centrioles and pericentriolar material.

- Centrosome

The ________ is a network of protein filaments throughout the cytosol

Provides structural support for the cell

- Cytoskeleton

________ is the intracellular fluid, surrounding the organelles. It is the site of many chemical reactions (energy is usually released by these reactions), and the reactions provide the building blocks for cell maintenance, structure, function and growth.

- Cytosol

______ is a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.

- Mitosis

Human somatic cells contain _____ of chromosomes (total = 46). The two chromosomes that make up each pair are called _________. Somatic cells contain two sets of chromosomes and are called ______.

- 23 pairs

- homologous chromosomes

- diploid cells

A ______ is a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes. This is double the haploid chromosome number. Each pair of chromosomes in a ______ is considered to be one homologous chromosome set.

- diploid cell

________ is the phase of the cell cycle in which a typical cell spends most of its life. During this phase, the cell copies its DNA in preparation for mitosis.

- Interphase

What are the three phases of Interphase? Describe them.

- G1: cell is metabolically active; duplicates organelles; 8-10 hours

- S: DNA is replicated; 8 hours

- G2: cell growth continues; enzymes and other proteins are synthesized; 4-6 hours

What is the order of mitosis? Explain each phase.

1. Prophase: the chromatin fibers change into chromosomes

2. Metaphase: microtubules align centromeres of the chromatid pairs at the metaphase plate

3. Anaphase: chromatid pairs split at the centromere and move to opposite poles of the cell; chromatids are now chromosomes

4. Telophase: two identical nuclei are formed around the identical sets of chromosomes now in their chromatin form

______: (of a cell or nucleus) having a single set of unpaired chromosomes; gametes contain a single set of 23 chromosomes.

- Haploid cells

______ is reproductive cell division that occurs in the gonads (ovaries and testes) that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes.

- Meiosis

What are the 4 types of RNA? Describe them.

1. mRNA (Messenger RNA): encodes amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.

2. tRNA (Transfer RNA): brings amino acids to ribosomes during translation.

3. rRNA (Ribsomal RNA): with ribosomal proteins, makes up the ribosomes, the organelles that translate the mRNA

4. snRNA (Small Nuclear RNA): with proteins, forms complexes that are used in RNA processing in eukaryotes

________ is the energy of matter in motion.

________ is energy stored by matter - due to an object’s position in space, or stored in chemical bonds.

- Kinetic energy

- Potential energy

_____ is a long, single-stranded chain of cells that processes protein. An example of this is a chain of cells that carries genetic information of many viruses from the cell to the cytoplasm.

- RNA

What are the 4 nitrogenous bases of DNA? Which ones attach to each other?

- ATGC: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

- A ↔ T

- G ↔ C

1. ________ carry two substances across the membrane in opposite directions.

2. ________ carry two substances across the membrane in the same direction.

1. Antiporters

2. Symporters

1. ______: a small spherical sac formed by budding off from a membrane

2. ______: materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane  three types: receptor-mediated endocytosis phagocytosis bulk-phase endocytosis (pinocytosis)

3. ______: vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing their contents into the extracellular fluid

4. ______: a combination of endocytosis and exocytosis 

1. Vesicle

2. Endocytosis

3. Exocytosis

4. Transcytosis

__________ consists of the skin and related structures (hair, nails, glands).

- Integumentary System

- Protects body, regulates temperature, and eliminates waste through sweat and other secretions

_________ consists of bones and joints.

- Skeletal System

- Provides protection and support; houses cells that will become red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

__________ consists of the named skeletal muscles, as well as smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.

- Muscular System

- Participates with the skeletal system to facilitate movement and maintain posture; generates the heat necessary for warm-blooded organisms to maintain a constant body temp

_________ consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory organs.

- Nervous System

- Senses and responds to body conditions through nerve impulses.

_________ consists of hormone-producing cells and glands scattered throughout the body.

- Endocrine System

- Regulates the body through chemical mechanisms (by releasing hormones into the blood)

_________ consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels.

- Cardiovascular System

- Carries bloods and nutrients to specific locations

- Regulates body temperature and water balance

________ consists of the lymphatic fluid, lymph nodes, and lymphocytes -- and the other associated organs of the immune system like the tonsils, spleen, and thymus gland.

- Lymphatic System

- Transports fats and proteins to the cardiovascular system

- Filters blood and protects against disease

_________ consists of the upper airways, the trachea and major bronchi, and the lungs.

- Respiratory System

- Extracts O2 and eliminates CO2

- In conjunction with the kidneys, regulates acid/base balance

_________ consists of the esophagus, stomach and intestines, and the accessory glands like the salivary glands, liver, and gallbladder.

- Digestive System

- Accomplishes the physical and chemical breakdown of food and elimination of waste.

_________ consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

- Urinary System

- Involved in the collection and excretion of waste products in urine, and the regulation of fluid, electrolyte, and acid/base balance

_________ consists of the ovaries, uterus and vagina in the female, and the testes and penis of the male (along with associated organs and glands in both sexes).

- Reproductive System

- Reproduction of an individual or organism

Define the directional terms:

1. Superior

2. Inferior

1. Above, top, toward head

2. Below, bottom, away from head

Define the directional terms:

1. Anterior (ventral) 

2. Posterior (dorsal)

1. Toward the front

2. Toward the back

Define the directional terms:

1. Medial

2. Lateral

3. Intermediate

1. Toward the midline

2. Away from midline

3. Between the above two

Define the directional terms:

1. Proximal

2. Distal

1. Nearest to the origination

2. Farther from origination

Define the directional terms:

1. Ipsilateral

2. Contralateral

1. Same side of the body

2. Opposite side of the body

Define the directional terms:

1. Superficial

2. Deep

1. Towards the surface

2. Towards the core of the body

Define the descriptive terms:

1. Visceral

2. Parietal

1. Pertaining to a covering over an organ

2. Pertaining to a covering against a cavity wall

Define the regional names: 

1. Cranial

2. Cervical

3. Cubital

4. Carpal

1. Skull

2. Neck

3. Elbow

4. Wrist

Define the regional names: 

1. Pateller

2. Orbital

3. Thoracic

4. Inguinal

1. Front of knee

2. Eye

3. Chest

4. Groin

Define the regional names: 

1. Metacarpal

2. Plantar

3. Buccal

4. Axillary

1. Hand/palm

2. Sole of foot

3. Cheek

4. Armpit

Define the regional names: 

1. Femoral

2. Gluteal

3. Tarsal

4. Digital or Phalangeal

1. Thigh

2. Buttock

3. Ankle

4. Toes or Fingers

What are body planes? What are the three major planes?

- Imaginary flat surfaces that separate the body or body part into portions.

- Saggital (midline)

- Transverse (horizontal)

- Frontal (coronal)

_________ divide the body into left and right sides.

- Sagittal planes

- There is only one midsagittal plane, and it divides the body into two equal, mirror-halves.

- There are an infinite number of parasagittal planes to the right and left of the midsagittal that divide the body into unequal halves.

_________ divide the body (or and organ) into anterior (front) or posterior (back) portions.

- Frontal or coronal planes

_________ (also called cross-sectional or horizontal planes) divide the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.

- Transverse planes

The body can also divide into an infinite number of _________ that pass through the body or organ at an angle.

- oblique planes

The brain and spinal cord develop in the _________. The remaining body organs are found in the _________.

- dorsal cavity

- ventral body cavity

(both dorsal and ventral cavities have subdivisions)

1. _________ is formed by the cranial bones and protects the brain.

2. _________ is formed by bones of vertebral column and contains the spinal cord.

3. _________ are layers of protective tissue that line the two above cavities.

1. Cranial cavity

2. Vertebral cavity

3. Meninges

_________ is formed by the sternum, ribs, and the thoracic portion of the bony vertebral column.

- Thoracic cavity

- Also called chest cavity

- Stabilized by the internal and external muscle of the chest

1. _________ is located in the central part of the thoracic cavity.

2. _________ are two fluid-filled spaces that surround each lung.

1. Mediastinal cavity

2. Pleural cavities

_________ is located within the middle part of the mediastinal cavity in the thoracic cavity (like a set of Russian nesting dolls of decreasing size).

- Pericardial cavity

- fluid-filled space that surrounds the heart

The _________ is a powerful skeletal muscle that divides the thorax (thoracic cavity) from the abdomen (abdominal cavity).

- Diaphragm

How many abdominopelvic quadrants are there? How many regions? What are they centered around?

- 4 quadrants

- 9 regions

- Centered around umbilicus (belly button)

Abdominopelvic quadrants and regions; vertical and horizontal lines pass through the _________. Identify each quadrant.

- umbilicus

- RUQ (liver), LUQ (spleen and left kidney)

- RLQ (appendix), LLQ (left ovary)

Dividing the abdomen and pelvis into regions is done using a _________. It is a little more complex, but is more specific.

- Tic-Tac-Toe grid

Name all 9 abdominal regions.

(from anterior view, starting top left to right)

1. Right Hypochondriac Region

2. Epigastric Region

3. Left Hypochondriac Region

4. Right Lumbar Region

5. Umbilical Region

6. Left Lumbar Region

7. Right Inguinal Region

8. Hypogastric Region

9. Left Inguinal Region

1. What is the name of the two vertical lines used in abdominal regions?

2. What are the two horizontal lines? (top to bottom)

3. What are the two lines used in abdominal quadrants?

1. Midclavicular lines

2. Subcostal line, Transtubercular line

3. Median line (vertical), Transumbilical line (horizontal)