old- comminuted

young- greenstick

all bones below the skull except the clavicle 

§Rising blood Ca2+ levels trigger the thyroid to release calcitonin

 adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts deposit and resorb bone at periosteal and endosteal surfaces

 osteoblast and osteoclast working together

depostion and resorption is equal

occur in sites subjected to heavy pressureand stretch such as the padlike cartilages (menisci) of the knee and the intervertebral disc 

Functional Zones in Long Bone Growth

Functional Zones in Long Bone Growth

(proliferation)Growth zone

Functional Zones in Long Bone Growth

osteogenic zone

results in the formation of the cranial bones of the skull and the clavicles. most bones formed by this process are flat bones

at about week 8 of development, ossification begins on fibrous connective tissue membranes formed by mesenchymal cells.

 longer than they are wide

has two ends plus a shaft

all limb bones except the patella, wrist, and ankle bones are:

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

2. fibrocartilaginous callus formation

§Granulation tissue (soft callus) forms a few days after the fracture

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

3. bony callus formation

Bone callus begins 3-4 weeks after injury, and continues until firm union is formed 2-3 months later

Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture

4. Bone remodeling

Types of Bone Fractures

communited

Types of Bone Fractures

greenstick

Types of Bone Fractures

spiral

 ragged break when bone is excessively twisted; common sports injury

Types of Bone Fractures

transverse

§a bone grows or remodels in response to the forces or demands placed upon it

(one way cartilage grows)

appositional growth

growth accomplished by the addition of new layers onto those previously formed

cells in the perichondrium secrete matrix against the external face of existing cartilage

cartilaginous joints:

symphysis

(gorwing together)\

the bones are connected by a broad flat disc of fibrocartilage

cartilaginous joints:

synchondrosis

the articulation of the coastal cartilage of the 1st rib with the sternum is a

epiphyseal plate in long bones of growing children

include fossae, foramina and grooves. they usually serve to allow passage of blood vessels and nerves

the spongy bone of flat bones is called

resembles a stiffened sandwich

sandwiched between 2 compact bones

epiphyseal line

epiphyseal plate

functions of the bones:

hylaine cartilage

(provides support flexibility and resilence)

 §Contains no blood vessels or nerves

stages in healing of bone fractures

1. hematoma formation

the primary ossification centers in a long bone is the center of the shaft.

the secondary ossification center in a long bone are in the epiphysis

hematoma forms

fibrocartilaginous callus forms

bony callus forms

bone remodeling occurs

Pelvic girdle secures the lower limbs

surrounding the nucleus pulposus is a strong collar compossed of collagen fibers superfiscially and fibrocartilage internally, the

limits the exspansion of the nucleus pulposis when the spine is compressed

 has a body, spine, and vertebral arches as do other cervical vertebrae

 consist of the anterior clavicles and the posterior scapulae

Synovial Joints: Range of Motion

uniaxial

Synovial Joints: Range of Motion

multiaxial

Angular Movement

Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion —

Angular Movement

 movement away from the midline

ex: raising the arm or thigh laterally

Angular Movement

Circumduction —

movement describes a cone in space

a pitcher winding up to throw a ball

Special Movements

inversion

Treatment – colchicine, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and glucocorticoids

functional class of joints

Synarthroses

functional class of joints

Amphiarthroses

Sensory input – monitoring stimuli

Integration – interpretation of sensory input

Motor output – response to stimuli

central nervous system

(brain and spinal cord)

)- integrates and coordinates sensory input and motor responses; center for higher functions.

Brain/spinal cord- Integration and command center

peripheral nervous system

 (cranial and spinal nerves)

Carries messages to and from the spinal cord and brain

Peripheral nervous system

 (PNS/ afferent division (2)

Sensory afferent fibers – carry impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, and joints to the brain

Visceral afferent fibers – transmit impulses from visceral organs to the brain

))  out going sensary

Transmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs

Motor Division: one of Two Main Parts where conscious control of muscles and reflexes (skeletal muscle)

Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands Divisions – sympathetic and parasympathetic

regulates glands and smooth/ cardiac muscle.  Will talk to smooth and cardiac muscles as well as glands like the adrenal glands.

Most abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial cells, They cling to neurons and their synaptic endings, and cover capillaries (astrocytic feet), Support and brace neurons, Anchor neurons to their nutrient supplies, Guide migration of young neurons, Control the chemical environment, Aid the blood-brain barrier

• - type of neuralgia that’s looks like a star burst. Job is to cover the capillaries in the brain. They control the chemical environment in the brain. Aid the blood brain barrier.

(neurolemmocytes)

• wrap myelin around axons in the peripheral nervous system.

– surround fibers of the PNS

• encloses and wraps the myelin sheaths around it. The upper layer of the myelin sheath is the neurilemma.  The gaps in between are called nodes of ravier. Coiling doesn’t take place here. partially enclose 15 or more axons.

Astrocytes, due to the blood-brain barrier.

dense collections of myelinated fibers

Neuron Classification

Multipolar

three or more processes

Ex: Purkinje cell of cerebellum, pyramidal cell, all motor fibers

— two processes (axon and dendrite)

: olfactory cell, retinal cell. only in nose and eyes

single, short process

Ex: dorsal root ganglion cell

all of your afferent sensory fibers except nose and eyes.

Passive, or leakage, channels

Types of plasma membrane ion channels:

that are always open

Let ions leak in or out of cell

the relationship between voltage, current and resistance

I=V/R

Types of plasma membrane ion channels that are open with binding of a specific neurotransmitter

• opens when a chemical opens it.

Types of plasma membrane ion channels that open and close in response to membrane potential

opens when electricity opens it

Mechanically gated channels

Types of plasma membrane ion channels

that open and close in response to physical deformation of receptors

when pressure (something physical) makes it open

 are short-lived, and have local changes in membrane potential. They decrease in intensity with distance. Their magnitude varies directly with the strength of the stimulus. Sufficiently strong __________can initiate action potentials.

 is defined as the time from the opening of the Na⁺ activation gates until the closing of inactivation gates. It prevents the neuron from generating an action potential, ensures that each action potential is separate, and enforces one-way transmission of nerve impulses.

1 – resting state 2 – depolarization phase 3 – repolarization phase 4 – hyperpolarization

[image]

)- An autoimmune disease that mainly affects young adults. Symptoms: visual disturbances, weakness, loss of muscular control, and urinary incontinence. Nerve fibers are severed and myelin sheaths in the CNS become nonfunctional scleroses. Shunting and short-circuiting of nerve impulses occurs.

• – excitatory postsynaptic potentials- try to excite the receiving neuron

• – inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, try to hyperpolarize to keep it from reaching the threshold.

Temporal summation

Temporal= time,

. Spatial summation

 spatial= physical space.

occur when postsynaptic neuron is stimulated by a large number of terminals at the same time.

• in the CNS and is designed to keep chemicals out of your brain that would be harmful to it. Cant stop every chemical. Its purpose mainly centered on stopping natural chemicals from doing damage top the brain. The natural chemical that’s in your blood all the time is uria. Because liver makes it and it goes around circulatory system until it ends up in the kidneys. If the uria got in through the ___________ your brain would black out.

• - fatty acid made of lipid and protein mixture. Segmented. Job is to insulate the axon.  Electrically insulate fibers from one another. Increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission. The more myelin you have, the faster our nerves work. The faster the impulse can travel down.

• Both myelinated and unmyelinated fibers are present in brain (that’s part of the gray matter). (white matter is white and grey matter is grey)

Grey matter- is made of 2 things: cell bodies and unmylinated axons.

White matter- is always myelinated axons. White part of brian and spinal cord is always myelinated axon.

• Both myelinated and unmyelinated fibers are present in brain (that’s part of the gray matter). (white matter is white and grey matter is grey)

Grey matter- is made of 2 things: cell bodies and unmylinated axons.

White matter- is always myelinated axons. White part of brian and spinal cord is always myelinated axon.

“How do these muscle sheaths compare to the nerve sheaths in Ch 13?”

muscle sheaths have an epimysium, perimysium, endomysium, blood vessesls and fascicles

nerve sheaths have an epineurium, perineurium, an endoneuriem, blood vessesl, axon and a myelin sheath

sarcomere

the smallest unit of a muscle. zdisc to zdisc

Explain the “sliding filament theory

[image]   What is the role of tropomyosin?”

inhibitor that sits on top of actin

helps stiffen and stabilize the actin core. block myosin binding sites on actin so that the myosin heads on the thick filaments cant bend to the thin filaments

t

What is the role of ATP in muscle contraction?”

 ATP cocks back the myosin head in preperation for the power stroke

glucose and oxygen 

C₆H₁₂O₆+6O₂---> 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + (36 ATP)

“What do we need to create ATP in our muscles?

“What is the role of the cisternae?”

(voltage gates are in the cisternae)

(calcium is released from the cisternae)

“What is the role of acetylcholine in a synapse?”

opens chemically gated Na⁺ and K⁺ channels

•  
  • Binding to its receptors initiates an action potential in the muscle

“What is the role of calcium in muscle contraction?

•  binds to troponin and causes:
  • The blocking action of tropomyosin to cease
  • Actin active binding sites to be exposed

• a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it supplies.
• The number of muscle fibers per ______ can vary from four to several hundred.
• Muscle fibers from a________are spread throughout the muscle; therefore, contraction of a single _______causes weak contraction of the entire muscle

Threshold stimulus

-55

• the muscle changes in length (decreasing the angle of the joint) and moves the load
• have same 3kg weight that im trying to lift w/ my bicep but im changing the shape of my bicep. Moving this weight cause im contracting this muscle.
• The two types  are concentric and eccentric

isotonic contractions/

Concentric contractions

the muscle shortens and does work (e.g. lifting a weight)

Isometric contractions

• - resistance training.
• Tension increases to the muscle’s capacity, but the muscle neither shortens nor lengthens
• Occurs if the load is greater than the tension the muscle is able to develop

“What is the basis of the warm-up?”

to contract and relax your muscles until you plateau so you have the maximum contractions needed to prepare for exercise

•  
  • Muscle enzyme systems become more efficient because heat is increased as muscle contracts

Doing the work while you are stretching the muscle.  Your calf worked and is being stretched as you are walking uphill.  Walking down hill (stretching while contracting/ tibialis anterior)

Muscle metabolism

anaerobic glycolysis

“How does resistance exercise (anaerobic) affect your muscles?”

• More myofibrils, more actins and myosins, more glycogens.  Getting muscle hypertrophy.

smooth muscle

Peristalsis-

alternating contractions and relaxations of smooth muscles that mix and squeeze substances through the lumen of hollow organs

squeeze the tube and force material forward repeatly. Alternating contractions and relaxations

in 

 all along the axons. From these we release neurotransmitters. 

release neurotransmitters into wide synaptic clefts called diffuse junctions

smooth muscle

Synchronized contraction

smooth muscle

•  

  §They contract in unison, reflecting their electrical coupling with gap junctions
  §Action potentials are transmitted from cell to cell

stress-relaxation response

§  Smooth muscle responds to stretch only briefly, and then adapts to its new length

§  The new length, however, retains its ability to contract

This enables organs such as the stomach and bladder to temporarily store contents

Muscles are enlarging cause fatty deposists and scar tissue is growing because the muscle fibers are atrophying. It is a sex linked disease found on the x chromosome so mom is the carrier and son is the recepiant.  Missing a molecule called dytrophin

because bones have caniculi

cartilage takes 3x as long to heal

Actin-

Myosin-

the zdisc is held together by proteins called

z disc hold connect the actins together

– the muscle is in a state of physiological inability to contract

Epinephrine dilates bronchioles. Acetocholine constricts bronchioles.

Adrenergic (works w/ adrediline)

• – 1^st step of cellular respiration. Only makes 2 ATP. Is anaerobic. Energy only last for 30-60s. makes latic acid that comes from pyruvic acid. (acids denature proteins) that is why the muscles hurt the next day. Cause muscles have been denatured and it takes a while for them to go back to their original shape. Have to keep workin out which grows more capillaries, glycosomes and myoglobin then muscles to stop producing latic acid.

a ___________ molecule w/ a  (PO₄)  attached to it. When its used the  PO4 is broke off and is added to ADP to make ATP.  No oxygen is used. 1 ATP is made per each molecule. Lasts only 15s.

ex:body building

incomplete tetanus

[image]

 provide the major force for producing a specific movement

the main muscle that does the movement

gastronemius

 oppose or reverse a particular movement

works in the opposite direction

biceps and triceps

Reduce undesirable or unnecessary movement

help the prime mover. gives extra force. helps to reduce any undesireable movements

soleus

– synergists that immobilize a bone or muscle’s origin

helps to hold the muscle in place. helps to hold the bone in place for the orgin

tensor fascia latae

Parallel

[image]

– fascicles run parallel to the long axis of the muscle (ex:sartorius)

run in the same direction

Fusiform –

[image]

spindle-shaped muscles (e.g., biceps brachii)

looks like 2 sets of muscles fused together

 fascicles converge from a broad origin to a single tendon insertion (e.g., pectoralis major)

a bunch of muscles all coming together

fascicles are arranged in concentric rings (e.g., orbicularis oris)

go around and around

– the fulcrum is between the load and the effort

effort and resistance is in opposite directions

the fulcrum is between the load and the effort

            Ex: seesaw, scissors, nodding yes

the load is between the fulcrum and the effort

effort and resistance is in same direction

ex: standing on tippytoes/  pivot on ball of feet, effort calcaneous and resistance is the whole body

(wheel barrell: effort is in handle. resistance is in the bucket. fulcrum is wheel)

 – the effort is applied between the fulcrum and the load

ex: baseball bat; effort is where habds are. resistance (you wanna move) is on the end. fulcrum is in the middle

: baseball, long ones, kicking, arm wrestling, flexing biceps, waving  

(whole arm and most long bones)