(Does not include sacrum)

Os coxa = innominate – ilium, ischium and pubis

Female Pelvis 

Epiphysis

Diaphysis

Metaphysis

long midsection of the long bone (shaft)

1.       Head of radius jammed into captiulum causing radial head or neck to break (proximal end of radius)

2.       Colles’ fracture when distal end of radius breaks

1.       Most common break of bone in wrist?

a.       Scaphoid = 70% of carpal injuries

The scaphoid primarily receives its blood from the distal end. Failure to heal of the fracture ( non union ) will lead to post traumatic osteoarthritisof the carpus. Healing of the fracture with a non anatomic deformity ( frequently a volar flexed "humpback" ) can also lead to post traumatic arthritis . Non unions can result in loss of blood supply to the proximal pole which can result in avascular necrosis of the proximal segment.

develops within the quadriceps tendon.  

a sesamoid bone because it is a bone that develops within a tendon.

Patellar “ligament” attaches to tibial tuberosity

Runs laterally and does not articulate with femur and is not a part of the knee joint

The distal end contains a lateral malleolus that stabilizes the ankle.

The knobs on either side of the talus are malleoli

Breaks occur at malleoli due to over eversion

common in skiers

a human foot type in which the sole of the foot is distinctly hollow when bearing weight.

1.       Synarthrosis “Together joint”- immobile: e.g. sutures or cranium

2.       Amphiarthrosis “on both sides joint”- slightly movable: e.g. between centra of vertebrae or pubic symphysis

3.       Diarthrosis “double joint” – freely movable: e.g. knee joint

Joints classified by structure:

1.       Fibrous joints

2.       Cartilaginous joints

3.       Synovial joints

1.       Sutures- bind bones of cranium

2.       Sydesmoses- ligaments bind bones lying side by side(tibia to fibula, radius to ulna)Interosseus membrane is articulation b/w radius and ulna.  Head of radius and ulna is freely moving joint.

Gomphoses- periodontal ligament attaches tooth in alveolus. (peri = around)

1.       Synchondroses- an articulation in which bones are joined by hyaline cartilage.

a.       Epiphyseal plate of long bones in children

b.      Costochondral articulations

2.       Symphyses- bones separated by pad of cartilage

Pubic and intervertebral symphyses

1.       Gliding/ planar

2.       hinge

3.       Pivot

4.       Condyloid

5.       Saddle

6.       Ball and socket

1.       Gliding- articulating surfaces nearly flat (move in one plane)

a.       Between carpals and tarsals

b.      Zygapophyseal( inf to sup vertebral processes)

1.       Hinge- 

convex fits into concave and bend in only one plane

a.       Knee, elbow and phalanges

1.       Pivot- 

rotation around central axis

a.       Atlas and axis

b.      Proximal radius and ulna

1.       Condyloid- 

oval convex fits into elliptical concave

allows for 2 directional movement

a.       Metacarpal to proximal phalanx

b.      Radiocarpal in wrist

1.       Saddle

- modified condyloid

Opposable thumb (trapezium with 1^st metacarpal) – more flexile

1.       Ball and socket- 

round convex fits into cup

(greatest range of movement- circumduction)

a.       Hip, shoulder

Synovial joints-

Inside the capsule: 

Articular cartilage- hyaline

Joint cavity

Intrinsic ligaments (intra capsular)- ligament holding femur into acetabulum

Joint may also include:

Bursae— sacs of synovial membrane

Menisci (cartilage discs)

Fat pads- shock absorption

Tendon sheaths- synovial membranes that wrap tendons for padding and lubrication.  Run outside joints and surround ligaments

Retinacula (flexor and extensor)- band of connective tissue wrapping tendons of ankles and wrists (covers tendonsheaths).  Helps hold tendons in place

(sole inward or outward)

(“opposable” thumb)

“take away”- lateral movement away from midline

Circumduction- full range of motion shoulder, hip, wrist, metacarpophalangeal

Rotation- turn on own axis

When you stretch or bend your finger to pop the knuckle, you’re causing the bones of the joint to pull apart.  As they do, the connective tissue capsule that surrounds the joint is stretched.  By stretching this capsule, the volume of the joint cavity is increased and pressure is decreased.  The gases dissolved in the fluid become less soluble, forming bubbles through a process called cavitation.  When the joint is stretched far enough, the pressure in the capsule drops so low that theses bubbles burst, producing the pop that we associate with knuckle cracking.  This does not cause arthritis.

The mandibular joint in the skull is most easily dislocated.

The tendons of the hallux have an off-centre pull with the first metatarsal moving away from the second for bunions.

Radial dislocation (subluxation) may be caused by a sudden pull on a child’s arm or hand—it is more common in children because the tendons are developing and the joints are less stable.  Also, the pulling/ yanking of the arm does not occur as often for adults.

Arthritis-

Inflammation of joints

Synovial swelling and damage to articular cartilages

1.       Stress on joints (age-related, occupational)

2.       Blood-borne substances can easily get into joint cavity:

a.       Bacterial/ viral infction (lyme disease)

b.      Injury to joint

c.       Genetic, metabolic

Uric acid retained in blood crystallizes in joints (most often in the Halux)

Chronic gout leads to deposition of urates into a chalky mass known as a “tophus”.  Joints fuse at tophi if untreated.

Sacrifice stability for mobility.  Ligaments form joint, but it is stabilized mostly by muscles and tendons

Glenoid fossa for head of humerus.

Glenoid labrum = cartilage “lip” deepens glenoid fossa.  Shoulder dislocation occurs here. (glenohumeral ligaments)

Shoulder joint capsule formed by glenohumeral ligaments.

Acromi- and coraco- joints:

Coracohumeral ligament

Acromioclavicular ligament- “shoulder separation” = dislocation here

Coracoacromial ligament

Coracoclavicular ligament

Rotator cuff- muscles surrounding joint

glenohumeral ligaments)

Transverse acetabular- provides lower boundary of acetabular fossa

Iliofemoral, pubofemoral, ischiofemoral

Acetabular labrum

Articular capsule

Acetabulum

Ligamentum capitis femoris

Angle of inclination decreases as we age and this places more stress on the neck of femur.

Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments – (cruciate = cross)

Anterior (medial) tibia to femoral lateral condyle

Posterior (medial) tibia to medial condyle

rocks of right age, type (sedimentary) and rocks exposed at surface. Ex. Sedimentary rock.

(365 mill) has one bone, two bone, blobs, and digits in a fin! – has a fully formed wrist and digits

upper arm and thigh

More distal bones developed later

Tetrapod pectoral girdle

Is a complex of endochondral and dermal bones-

Formed after loss of bones (e.g/ posttemporal, supracleithrum) that connect cleithrum to skull.  This loss allows for shoulder

Dermal elements predominate in basal condition.

Endochondral bones take on greater prominence (procoracoid, coracoids, scapula)  in aminiotes

Most dermal bones (e.g. cleithrum) are lost in amniotes (except for clavicle – what happens to clavicle in birds?)

Furcula – “wishbone”

All birds after amphibians have eggs

Precursor structures in fishes were endochondral.  Tetrapods have 3 endochondral ossification centers that form on each side: pubis, ischium, ilium all joined at the acetabulum.

Pelvis only endoskeletal in origin

Shift to limbs held under body—allowed for more efficient locomotion on land

Pedulum swing of limbs allowed greater speed

Rotation of humerus and femur shift digits in line with direction of travel.  Further changes in carpals, tarsals and digits evolved for increased speed in locomotion.

sole of foot in contact with gound

travel on tips of toes

Changes lengthen stride, increase speed

Fusion of digits increases the load capacity for unguligrade

3 Categories of muscles based on embryology

Embryonic mesenchyme

Hypomere (splanchnic mesoderm)

Paraxial mesoderm

1.       myotome portion of somites organizes along the axis

of the embryo (on either side of neural tube).  In head region it contributes to somitomeres in the rest of the body it forms the myotomes of somites.  It gives rise to most of body’s skeletal muscles.

Pre-otic somitomeres

Branchiomeric somitomeres

Anterior-most somites

Moving caudally (after somitomeres and hypobranchial somites), the subsequent somite myotomes form axial musculature

From somitomeres

Extrinsic eye muscles (pre-otic somitomeres)

= six muscles from first three somitomers

Extrinsic (outside) eye muscles

O= common tendinous ring in posterior of orbit (ring of Zinn)

I = particular sites on sclera

yields 4 muscles all innervated by CNIII (occulomotor nerve):

Inferior rectus, superior rectus and medial rectus and inferior oblique

1.       Muscle: Inferior Rectus

a.       Origin: Common tendinous ring

b.      Insertion: Inferior surface of sclera

c.       Action: Depression, adduction, lateral rotation

1.       Muscle: Superior Rectus

a.       Origin: common tendinous ring

b.      Insertion: Superior surface of sclera

c.       Action: Elevation, adduction and medial rotation

Origin: common tendinous ring

b.      Insertion: Superior surface of sclera

c.       Action: Elevation, adduction and medial rotation

1.       Muscle: Medial Rectus

a.       

Origin: Common tendinous ring

b.      Insertion: medial surface of sclera

c.       Action: Adduction of eye

1.       Muscle: Inferior oblique

a.       Origin: common tendinous ring

b.      Insertion: Floor of orbit lateral to the lacrimal groove

c.       Action: Lateral rotation, elevation and abduction of the eye

the superior oblique and it is innervated by CNIV (trochlear nerve)

1.       Muscle: Superior oblique

a.       Origin: Common tendinous ring and its functional origin is a cartilage trochlea

b.      Insertion: Posterior superior surface on sclera of eyeball

c.       Action: Medial rotation, depression, abduction of eyeball

lateral rectus and is innervated by CNVI (abducens)

1.       Muscle: Lateral rectus

a.       Origin: Common tendinous ring

b.      Insertion: lateral surface of sclera

Action: Abduction of eye

Muscles that move the structures of arch 1 in the shark

1.       Adductor mandibulae-

2.       Intermandibularis-

1.       Muscle: Masseter (CNV)

a.       Origin: Zygomatic bone and arch (posterior 1/3)

b.      Insertion: Lateral surface of the ramus and angle of the mandible

c.       Action: Elevates, adducts and protrudes mandible

1.       Muscle: Temporalis (CNV)

a.       Origin: Fossa temporalis and temporal fossa (Temporal lines of parietals)

b.      Insertion: Coronoid process of mandible and anterior surface of the ramus

c.       Action: Vertical: Elevates mandible Horizontal: retracts mandible

1.       Muscle: Medial pterygoideus

a.       Origin: Medial surface of lateral pterygoid plate of sphenoid, palatine bone tuberosity of maxilla

b.      Insertion: Medial surface of angla and ramus of mandible

Action: Protracts and elevates mandible (move mandible laterally)

1.       Muscle: Lateral pterygoideus (CNV)

a.       Origin: Superior head: greater wing of sphenoid ; inferior head: Lateral surface of lateral pterygoid plate

b.      Insertion: medial aspect of mandibular condyle

c.       Action: Protracts mandible; aids in mastication

1.       Muscle: Mylohyoideus CNV 

(forms base of oral cavity)

a.       Origin: Mylohyoid line of mandible

b.      Insertion: midline raphe and body of hyoid

Action: Elevate hyoid and raise floor of mouth

1.       Muscle: Anterior belly of digastricus (CNV)

a.       Origin: Medial mandible

b.      Insertion: Hyoid

c.       Action: Elevates hyoid bone and depresses the mandible

Basal ancestor muscle of 2^nd hyoid arch: Interhyoideus (CN VII).  Evolves into:

1.       Posterior belly of digastrics

2.       Stylohyoideus

3.       Constrictor colli

1.       Muscle: Posterior belly of digastricus (CN VII)

a.       Origin: Mastoid process of the temporal bone

b.      Insertion: Hyoid

c.       Action: Elevates hyoid, depresses mandible

1.       Muscle: Stylohyoideus

a.       Origin: Posterior styloid process of the temporal bone

b.      Insertion: Body of hyoid

c.       Action: Elevates and retracts the hyoid, assists in lowering the mandible

Facial muscles (Muscles of facial expression)

-          Also from interhyoideus of fishes leads to constrictor colli of lower tetrapods

-          All innervated by the facial nerve

1.       Muscle: Platysma

a.       Origin: Inferior border of the mandible and parotid fascia

b.      Insertion: Pectoral fascia overlying the pectoralis major and deltoid muscles

c.       Action: Depress lower lip and tense neck

1.       Muscle: Risorius

a.       Origin: Facia of the lateral cheek

b.      Insertion: Skin of the angle of the mouth

Action: Grimacing pulls the corner of the mouth laterally

1.       Muscle: Mentalis

a.       Origin: Anterior surface of the mandible near the mental symphysis

b.      Insertion: Skin of chin

c.       Action: Elevates and protrudes lower lip

1.       Muscle: Depressor anguli oris

a.       Origin: Mandible

b.      Insertion: Angle of the mouth, bends with the fibers of orbicularis oris

Action: Pulls angle of mouth laterally and downward

1.       Muscle: Orbicularis oris

a.       Origin: Skin and fascia of lips and area surrounding it

b.      Insertion: Skin and fascia of lips

c.       Action: Compresses and protrudes the lips

1.       Muscle: Buccinator (Trumpeter)

a.       Origin: Mandible, alveolar process of mandible and maxilla

b.      Insertion: Angle of the mouth and lateral portion of the upper lips

c.       Action: Compresses cheeks

1.       Muscle: Zygomaticus major

a.       Origin: Upper lateral surface of zygomatic bone

b.      Insertion: Skin of the angle of the mouth

c.       Action: Elevates and draws the angle of the mouth laterally (smile)

1.       Muscle: Levator labii superioris

a.       Origin: Inferior margin of the orbit and frontal process of maxilla

b.      Insertion: Skin of the upper lip

Action: Elevates upper lip

1.       Muscle: Corrugator Supercilli

a.       Origin: Medial part of supercilliary arch

b.      Insertion: skin of medial half of eyebrow

c.       Action: Pulls eyebrows together

1.       Muscle: Orbicularis oculi

a.       Origin: Orbital part: Medial margin and medial palpebral ligament

b.      Insertion: Orbital part : skin of lateral cheek

c.       Action: Closes eye

1.       Muscle: Nasalis

a.       Origin: Maxilla above incisors and canine teeth

b.      Insertion: Midline aponeurosis at bridge of nose

c.       Action: Pulls the ala backwards and lowers it

1.       Muscle: Frontalis

a.       Origin: Epicranial aponeurosis

b.      Insertion: skin of eyebrows and forehead

c.       Action: Elevates eyebrows and wrinkles skin of forehead

1.       Muscle: Occipitalis

a.       Origin: Superior nuchal line

b.      Insertion: Galea aponeurotica

c.       Action: Elevation of eyebrows and wrinkles the forehead

1.       Muscle: Auricularis

a.       Origin: Temporal fascia

b.      Insertion: Helix of the ear

c.       Action: Pulls ear up and forward

Branchiomeric  (somitomere) muscles of “neck” from arch III

Two muscle groups from cucularis:

1.       Trapezius group : (trapezius in us) In cat: Clavotrapezius, acromiotrapezius and spinotrapezius

2.        Mastoid group: cleidomastoid and sternomastoid = sternocledomastoid in us

Two muscle groups from cucularis:

1.       Trapezius group : (trapezius in us) In cat: Clavotrapezius, acromiotrapezius and spinotrapezius

2.        Mastoid group: cleidomastoid and sternomastoid = sternocledomastoid in us

1.       Muscle: Trapezius

a.       

Origin:1. Descending external occipital protuberance, ligamentum nuchae, spinous process of c1-c7. 2. Transverse aponeurosis of spinous process at T1-T4. 3. Ascending spinous process of T5-T12

b.      Insertion: Descending lateral 1/3 of clavicle; transverse medial side of acromion; ascending: the upper crest and tubercle of the scapular spine

c.       Action: Retraction, superior rotation, elevation and depression of the scapula

1.       Muscle: Sternocleidomastoid

a.       Origin: Sternal head: anterior surface of manubrium; clavicular head: medial third of clavicle

b.      Insertion: Mastoid process and lateral part of superior nuchal line

c.       Action: Inclines head ipsilaterally, rotates contralaterally (Both = flex neck) (one = turn head to opposite side)

Anterior extensions of hypaxial muscles (from somites: i.e. myotomes of anterior somites)

Muscles extending along medial region of “neck”

those extending from coracoid cartilage of pectoral girdle in shark.

Landmarks for nomenclature

Thyroid cartilage=

Cricoid cartilage =

Thyroid cartilage = most anterior cartilage of the larynx

Cricoid cartilage = first cartilage below larynx

1.       Muscle: Sternohyoid

a.       Origin: Manubrium

b.      Insertion: Hyoid bone

c.       Action: Depresses and stabilizes the hyoid bone and larynx

1.       Muscle: Sternothyroid

a.       Origin: manubrium

b.      Insertion: Inferior border of thyroid cartilage

c.       Action: Depresses and stabilizes the hyoid bone or phonation and swallowing

1.       Muscle: Thyrohyoid

a.       Origin: Oblique line of thyroid cartilage

b.      Insertion: Lower border of hyoid

Action: Depresses and stabilizes hyoid; elevates the larynx during swallowing

1.       Muscle: omohyoideus (omo = shoulder)

a.       Origin: Superior scapula (hooked by tendinous trochlea)

b.      Insertion: hyoid

c.       Action: Depresses and stabilizes the hyoid

1.       Muscle: geniohyoid (derivation is corocomandibularis)

a.       Origin: Mental spine of mandible

b.      Insertion: Body of hyoid

c.       Action: Depresses the mandible; elevates the hyoid bone

1.       Muscle: hyoglossus

a.       Origin: Hyoid bone

b.      Insertion: Intrinsic muscles of tounge

c.       Action: retracts and depresses the sides of the tounge

1.       Muscle: Genioglossus

a.       Origin: chin(medial, posterior mandible)

b.      Insertion: tongue

c.       Action: Protrudes and depresses the tongue

1.       Muscle: Styloglossus

a.       Origin: Styloid process of temporal bone

b.      Insertion: tongue

c.       Action: Elevates the tongue

Myomeres divided into dorsal epaxial muscles and ventral hypaxial muscles separated by the horizontal septum

myotome is “split” into ventral (hypaxial) and dorsal (epaxial) muscles of the axial skeleton

External obliques, internal obliques, transverses abdominus and rectus abdominus (on either side of linea alba) (alba = white)

serratus ventralis and dorsalis, scalenus and external intercostals

Muscles of Respiration:

External intercostals – elevates ribs for deep inhale

Scalenes- flex neck, elevate ribs when neck straight

Internal intercostals and transverses thoracis- compress ribs upon forceful exhale

Hiatal hernias:

Most commonly the gastroesophageal region of stomach herniates up through esophageal hiatus.  Causes acid reflux, inability to swallow

1.       Muscle: External obliques

a.       Origin: ribs

b.      Insertion: iliac crest and linea alba

c.       Action: Lateral flexion of the trunk ipsilaterally; rotates trunk contralaterally; compression of the abdomen; stabilization of pelvis

1.       Muscle: Internal obliques

a.       Origin: iliac crest, lumbodorsal fascia

b.      Insertion: lineal alba and lower ribs

Action: Flexion and lateral flexion of trunk ipsilaterally, rotates trunk contralaterally

1.       Muscle: Rectus abdominous (tendinous inscriptions)

a.       Origin: Pubic crest

b.      Insertion: Costal cartilages and xiphoid process

Action: Compression of abdomen, flexion of trunk, stabilization of pelvis

1.       Muscle: Transversus abdominus

a.       Origin: lower ribs, lumbodorsal fascia

b.      Insertion: linia alba

c.       Action: compress abdomen

remaster muscle: muscle slip that inserts on scrotum and pulls testicles closer to body

Diaphragm

Sternal portion "originates"?

Costal portion "originates" ?

vertebral portion "originates"?

Insertion?

Sternal portion “originates” on xiphoid

Costal portion “originates” on lower ribs

Vertebral portion “originates” on lumbar vertebrae via 2 crura (crus = shank)

“insertion” =  central tendon

Caval hiatus- opening for inferior vena cava

Esophageal hiatus- Opening for esophagus

Aortic hiatus-  Opening for aorta

Epaxial muscles in reptiles

Extensors of the vertebral column

Collectively referred to as the?

composed of three groups

erector spinae muscles

spinalis (transversospinalis in lizards), longissimus and iliocostalis

1.       Muscle: Semispinalis capitis

a.       Origin: C7-T6 spinous process

b.      Insertion: occipital bone

c.       Action: extend neck

1.       Muscle: Spinalis thoracis

a.       Origin: spinous processes

b.      Insertion: Spinous process

c.       Action: Extend vertebral column

Longissimus group- origins=

1.       Muscle: Longissimus capitis

a.       Origin: Transverse process of upper vertebrae

b.      Insertion: mastoid process

c.       Action: Extend vertebral column.  Ipsilateral lateral flexion of the head, neck and trunk

1.       Muscle: Longissimus cervicis and Longissimus thoracis

a.       Origin: transverse of lower vertebrae

b.      Insertion: Transverse of upper vertebrae

c.       Action: Extend the vertebral column

1.       Muscle: Iliocostalis cervicis

a.       Origin: rib 3-6

b.      Insertion: Transverse process of C4-6

Action: Extend vertebrae

1.       Muscle: Iliocostalis thoracis

a.       Origin: ilium and lower ribs

b.      Insertion: upper ribs (to uncinate processes in birds)

c.       Action: Extend vertebrae

1.       Muscle: Iliocostalis lumborum

a.       Origin: ilium

b.      Insertion: ribs

1.       Muscle: Splenius capitis

a.       Origin: spinal processes of cervical vertebrae

b.      Insertion: Occipital process

c.       Action: Neck extensor (1 side tilts the head)

Functions: Support organs of pelvic cavity, control opening/closing of urethra or anus and sexual arousal

The perineum includes the ?

The structures are supported internally by the muscles of the?

Urogenital triangle extends from the ______ to _____?

urogenital triangle and the anal triangle.

pelvic diaphragm

Urogenital triagle extends from the pubic symphysis to both Ischial tuberosities.

1.       Muscle: Coccygeus (supports pelvic viscera)

a.       Origin: ischial spine

b.      Insertion: sacrum

c.       Action: Supports pelvic viscera

1.       Muscle: Ischiocavernosus

a.       Origin:

b.      Insertion:

c.       Action: aids in erection

1.       Muscle: bulbospongiosus

a.       Origin:

b.      Insertion:

c.       Action: narrows vagina, aids errection (and ejaculation in males)

1.       Muscle: Superficial transverse perineus (diaphragmatic muscle)

a.       Origin:

b.      Insertion:

c.       Action: visceral support

1.       Muscle: External urethral sphincter

a.       Origin:

b.      Insertion:

c.       Action: Controls opening of urethra

1.       Muscle: Deep transverse perineal muscle

a.       Origin:

b.      Insertion:

c.       Action: Supports pelvic viscera

Anal triagle:

Superficial:

1.       Muscle: Levator ani 

a.       Origin: pubis and ischial spine

b.      Insertion: coccyx

c.       Action: group of three muscles that support pelvic organs, one muscle must relax during defecation

until recently, routinely performed on women during childbirth if tearing of perineum is likely.  Now it is controversial because it is often times performed when it is not needed.  It is most common in the US.  For medial episiotomy can result in prolapse if it does not heal correctly.