• Typical thought + emotion + behaviour, and psychological mechanisms at play
• "Personality triad"
•  Way of seeing whole person

Key features:

1. Dynamic organization
2. Regulates/drives behaviour
3. Unique and shared elements compared to others (continuum)

• Thought
• Emotion
• Behaviour 

• Latent variable inferred from many behavioural observations
• Diverse presentations
• Typical expression of thought + emotion + behaviour
•  Measurable
• Malleable (environment, physiology, etc.)

• High: temperamental, worrying, insecure, high-strung
• Low: calm, content
• Negative affect and emotional coping

Facets

• Anxiety
• Angry hostility
• Depression
• Self-consciousness
• Impulsiveness
• Vulnerability to stress

• Sociability, enthusiasm, and assertiveness
• Positive emotionality 

Facets

• Warmth
• Gregariousness
• Assertiveness
• Activity
• Excitement-seeking
• Positive emotions

• High: originality, imagination, broad interests
• Low: shallow, simple 

Facets

• Fantasy
• Aesthetics
• Feelings
• Actions
• Ideas
• Values

• High: sympathetic, trusting
• Low: cold, quarrelsome
• Cognitively: trusting
• Affectively: sentimental
• Behavioural: collaborative
• Similar to Eysenck's psychoticim (reverse coded) 

Facets

• Trust
• Straightforwardness
• Altruism
• Compliance
• Modesty
• Tender-mindedness

• High: hard working, ambitious, persevering
• Low: aimless 

Facets

• Competence
• Order
• Dutifulness
• Achievement-seeking
• Self-discipline
• Deliberation

• Idiographic
• Nomothetic 

• Eysenck
• Psychoticism
• Extraversion
• Neuroticism 

• Behaviours that provide clues regarding personality
• e.g., can judge conscientiousness and openness from rooms 

• Eysenck
• Top is the umbrella superfactor (P, E, N)
• Most latent
•  Becomes more specific and observable as you move down
• Supertrait
• Trait
• Habit
• Behaviour

1. Traits are the behavioural manifestations of psychological mechanisms (e.g., thoughts, emotion)
2. Traits are inherent mechanisms that drive our behaviours 

• Tied to the individual's self-identity 
• Central to the personality

• Traits that are situationally variable and/or are less central to the personality 

• Uncommon
• Occur when the whole personality can be summed with one descriptor 

• Theoretical (observation, theory) 
• Lexical (language)
• Measurement (factor analysis)

Psychoticism

• Aggressive
• Cold
• Egocentric
• Impersonal
• Impulsive
• Unempathetic
• Antisocial

Extraversion

• Sociable
• Assertive
• Active
• Lively
• Sensation-seeking

Neuroticism

• Anxious
• Depressed
• Guilt
• Low self-esteem
• Irrational
• Tense
• Emotional

• One-factor model of personality
• All positive qualities of the Big Five
• Alpha: emotional stability (interpersonally)
• Neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness
• Beta: adaptability
• Openness, extraversion

• Personality does not vary as a function of IQ
• No discriminative value 

• Saucier and Goldberg think it's a secondary trait
• Piedmont et al. think that, more specifically, spiritual transcendence is the trait 

• Piedmont et al.
• Ability to step aside from the self to view the world from a larger, more objective, perspective
• Seperate from the five factors, although religiousity correlates with openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and locus of control

• Prayer fulfillment (positive affect associated with transcendence)
• Universality (seeing humanity as a whole)
• Connectedness (belongingness to a group)

• Initially, seven sexuality factors were identified
• All factors correlate highly with big five (e.g., agreeableness and emotional investment) 

• Not sure (more research needed)
• Openness varies across cultures
• Adjectives associated with Big Five traits vary across cultures (except for openness)
• Five factor model measures have decent reliability across cultures
• Some cultures need more than five factors to adequately describe personality 
• The closer a country`s culture is to Nothern European culture, the closer its results align with the English version of the Big Five

• High extraversion
• High achievement-striving
• High emotionality
• Less open
• Less agreeable
• Low psychological liberalism
• Low modesty
• Low morality

• Short Test of Musical Preferences (STOMP)
• No gender differences
• No effect of chronic mood
• Different personalities prefer different types of music
• e.g.,  individuals high on Openness enjoy reflective & complex and intense & rebellious, but dislike upbeat & coventional

• Consistent by age 3 

• 50

i. What is the agespan associated with the greatest normative changes in personality?

ii. What are the changes in personality that occur at this time?

• ages 20 - 40
• More assertive and warm
• More agreeable
• More emotionally stable
• Less openness 
• Generally, the personality becomes more positive
• Openness increases most early in life; by this period it either decreases or stays constant

• Not entirely known
• Temperament predicts adult personality
• Niche-picking

i. What are the limitations/critiques of the trait model? (5)

ii. How can we attempt to overcome these?

• No causal evidence
• Discounts social factors
• Does not explain intrapersonal organization and integration of traits
• Surface descriptions aren't useful for prediction 
• Fails to capture the complexity of the individual

• Overcome by gathering evidence from complementary sources (e.g., genetics, physiology)

• Intercorrelations with Big Five -- does the proposed trait stand alone? 
• Variance accounted for

• Agreeableness
• Conscientiousness 

• Traits that are unique to a culture
• Philotimo
• Filial piety
• Amae 

• Using multiple sources of inquiry to answer a question 

• LOTS
• Self-report
• Testing
• Observational
• Life 

• Occurs when behaviour changes but personality doesn't

• Work
• Increase in conscientiousness
• Marriage
• Increase in agreeableness, conscientiousness
• Decrease in neuroticism
• Those who don't fall into these conventional roles do not show typical personality changes associated with development

• Men

• Longitudinal study of gifted children

• Longitudinal study of women from Mills college

• Aim: identify physical and mental components of health
• Shift as we age to more adaptive defense mechanisms used (e.g., paranoia --> altruism)
• Conscientiousness strongest predictor of health and good functioning across domains
• Extraversion predicted financial success
• Neuroticism associated with poor health and behaviours
• Smoking
• Mental illness

• Samples wide range of behaviours
• Reliable
• Valid
• Generalizable
• Specifies appropriate use (e.g., samples)
• Unbiased
• Aligns with theory

• All combinations of split-half reliability estimates

• Test (e.g., measurement error)
• State of participant
• State of experimenter
• Testing environment

• Tendency to think of behaviour as indicative of the personality and not the circumstance

• Standardized administration
• Engage participants (by making items important)

• Appearance that test measures what it indends to

• Test measures the intended construct

• Test correlates with other measures of the same construct

• Test does not correlate with other constructs

• Test compares with scores of an external criterion (i.e., a population known to endorse that construct)
• Useful in test development

• SR
• Performance

• Association
• Construction
• Completion
• Expression
• Stimuli arrangement and reflection

(Don't need to list, but helpful to have an idea if an example is needed)

• Mind as an iceberg (partially conscious of processes)
• Unconscious can be projected outward

Need for...

• Affiliation
• Power
• Achievement

Pro

• You know yourself best
• Simple to administer
• Can collect lots of data
• Good psychometric properties
• Causal?

Cons

• Bias
• Lack of insight
• Faking

• Pattern of responding influenced by factors other than the personality
• Social desirability
• Acquiencence/Reactance
• Carelessness
• Also called non-consistent responding

• Social desirability
• Acquiescent/Reactant
• Extreme, neutral responding
• Carelessness
• Culture
• Need to be different in individualistic cultures causes more extreme responding
• Dialectical thinking -- okay with contradiction -- in East Asians

• Anonymity
• Reverse code
• Lie scales
• Forced-choice items
• Wording
• Marlow-Crowne (social desirability)

• L scale: social desirability
• F scale: faking bad
• K scale: denial of psychopathology

• Insufficient psychometric validation
• Good answers can be posted online

• Based on projective hypothesis that some thoughts/desires are unconscious (mind as iceberg)
• Individual may project their unconscious onto stimuli
• Dream analysis
• Lowering defenses (e.g., psychoanalysis and free association)
• Ambiguous stimuli

• Forer
• Tendency to agree with personality test results, regardless of what they may be

Temporal

• Test-retest

Internal

• Parallel forms
• Split-half
• Cronbach's

Rater

• Interrater

• Respondants are more engaged if they see the relevance
• More effortful/careful responding
• Item generation

• Disagreeing with every item
• Opposite of acquiescent responding

• Used to identify employees who may steal or be otherwise dishonest
• Overt purpose and disguised purpose

• Overt purpose
• Ask employee directly
• Disguised purpose
• Personality measures used to infer

Trait model

• Traits--our latent tendencies--guide behaviour

Psychoanalytic model

• Intrapsychic forces--instincts, desires, unconscious--guide behaviour

• Behaviour is controlled by unconscious instincts
• No free will--all behaviours have a psychic cause
• Behaviours have specific causes

• Ideas that are not currently in consciousness but can be called up

• Pleasure principle
• Tension reduction through
• Action
• Wish-fulfillment
• Source of energy
• Unchangeable
• Unthinking
• Characterizes babies
• Inferred through parapraxes

• Psychological part of the mind that needs energy
• Libido is psychic energy that powers the mind
• Thanatos also provides some energy

• Libido: life drive
• Thanatos: death drive

• Life drive
• Motivates behaviour
• Source of psychic energy that powers the mind

• Death drive
• Motivates behaviour
• Source of mental energy

• Ego's perception of threat
• Possiblity that drives will bring more pain than pleasure

• Defense mechanisms

• Reality
• Perception of external danger
• Neurotic
• Fear of instincts overwhelming the ego
• Moral
• Fear of doing or thinking something inappropriate

• Anxiety of the ego
• Fear of external danger

• Anxiety of the ego
• Fear of instincts overwhelming the ego

• Anxiety of the ego
• Fear of doing or thinking something inappropriate

• Maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain
• Can involve delayed gratification
• Sacrificing small reward now for bigger reward later
• Deciding whether or not to close the gap when you favour the id or ego ("overpaid or undercharged")
• Choosing realistic behaviours or costly standards

• Reduce ego anxiety by manipulating or concealing reality
• Unconscious process--we are not aware that we are using a defense mechanism, nor the purpose of that behaviour

• Can become part of the personality
• Maladaptive

• Repression
• Reaction formation
• Rationalization
• Projection
• Sublimation
• Displacement

• Sublimation
• Socialization of impulses
• Displacement
• Identification with same-sex parent

Use of these defense mechanisms is key in leaving behind existence driven purely by the id (i.e., infancy)

• Inability to move on to the next psychosexual stage of development
• Creates noticable features on personality

• Occurs when we revert back to a less-developed psychosexual stage
• Acute response to stress, shock

• Increase the ego's control over personality
• Improve insight into the dynamic causes of behaviour)
• Increase autonomy and personal responsibility for behaviour
• Clarify interpretation of beahaviour

• Hypnosis
• Free association

• Occurs in psychoanalytic therapy when client avoids discussing something
• Extrapolation helps uncover repressed problems

• Occurs in psychoanalytic therapy when client projects their feelings onto the therapist
• Normal part of psychoanalytic therapy

• Occurs in psychoanalytic therapy when the client projects feelings onto the client
• Inappropriate

• Psychoanalytic therapy
• Free association
• Lowering conscious guard so unconscious can be exposed
• Dream analysis
• Interpreting parapraxes
• Interpreting humour
• Interpreting symbolic behaviour (including personality characteristics)

Criticisms

• Theory developed on case studies
• Clients with psychopathology
• No operational definitions
• Not testable
• Emphasis on males

Merits

• Importance of unconscious
• Intrapsychic conflict & anxiety
• Dynamic between desires, emotions, thoughts, social expectations, beliefs, etc. guides behaviour and personality
• Personality lifespan development
• Importance of early life experience

• Early experiences with caregivers shape our expectations, which influence future relationships

• Mental representation of relationships
• Internal working model of the self: feelings of worth
• Internal working model of others: expectations of others, based on relationship with primary caregiver as an infant

• Redirecting emotions for one person to experience the same emotions for another person

1. Behaviours and perceptions are guided by early-life experiences
2. We are largely unconscious
3. Personality develops and can change

• Combination of mental energy and physical energy

• For all intents and purposes, term is interchangeable with the libido
• Whereas eros is the life instinct, libido is the mental energy that engenders eros

• Mistake in speech or behaviour
• e.g., Freudian slip, clumsiness
• Reveals elements of the unconscious

• Jung
• Schemata
• Conceptually-grouped representations

• Lower-order
• Without logic, rules, or rationalization
• Id

• Hedonistic drive
• Id

• Action
• Wish-fulfillment (i.e., fantasy)

• Fantasizing about something to reduce the id's craving for it

• Works to satisfy id within the constraints of feasibility
• Balances id's pleasure and superego's displeasure

• Higher-order
• Logical problem-solving
• Maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain
• Ego

• Internalization of social expectations
• Genital stage
• Driven by castration anxiety (stronger motivator in males)

• Ego ideal
• Conscience

• Concept of what is right
• Element of the superego

• Concept of what is wrong
• Element of superego

Meta-question

When asked to describe the id, ego, or superego, what elements do you need to hit?

• Overarching description
• Is it conscious?
• Is it realistic?
• What are its elements?
• Process thinking
• Principles
• Ego ideal and conscience (in case of superego)

• Conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind
• Continuity between conscious and unconscious
• Unconscious important in personality and behaviour

• Projection: attributing your emotions as belonging to someone else
• Displacement: transferring feelings from one person (idea/object) to another

• Surfacing of libidinal energy localized at erogenous zones

• By age 2
• By the time infant enters the anal stage

• By age 5
• Corresponds with internalization of social standards in the phallic stage

Meta-question

What elements are needed to describe the psychosexual stages?

• Ages
• Notable details
• Fixation
• Understimulation
• Overstimulation

• Birth - 18 months
• Pure id
• Stage when you learn independence (ties with fixation)

Oral incorportative: dependent (failure to become autonomous)

Oral sadistic: caustic and aggressive (think "biting")

• 1 - 3 years
• Ego development

Anal expulsive: uninhibited, recalcitrant

Anal retentive: rigid, stingy 

• 2 - 5 years
• Superego development
• Oedipal stage
• Castration anxiety
• Penis envy

Phallic: hyper-masculine, virile

Hysterical: hyper-feminine, promiscuous 

• Castration anxiety and--to a lesser extent--penis envy
• Realization that impulses are immoral (socialization) becomes internalized

• Concerned with intimate relationships and their emotional and cognitive bases
• Neo-Freudian

• John Bowlby
• Importance of the early relationship with the primary caregiver

1. Infants are less fearful when they trust their mothers to be reliable
2. Confidence (in the caregiver's ability to respond) carries into adulthood
3. Our expectations of others in a relationship reflects the behaviours of the primary caregiver as a child

• Internal working model 

• Strange Situation

• Secure
• Avoidant
• Anxious-ambivalent
• Disorganized

• Parent is sensitive and responsive
• Child is explorative, affectionate
• Mother as safe haven

• Parent is emotionally distant and avoids physical contact
• Child is explorative and indifferent with mother

• Parent is inconsistent in responsiveness
• Child is not explorative, distressed with and without mother, does not seek mother for comfort

• Cognitive processes (e.g., perceptions, expectations, problem-solving) guide personality and behaviour

Negative changes to 

• Cognition (hopeless expectations)
• Motivation (problem-solving)
• Emotion
• Self-esteem
• Psychopathology

• Honesty-humility
• Does overlap somewhat with agreeableness and extraversion
• Spiritual transcendance
• Indigenous traits
• e.g., filial piety

1. Perception of non-contingency between behaviours and outcomes
2. Expectations for the task become pessimistic
3. Behaviour becomes passive, amotivated

• Change in cognition, motivation/behaviour, and emotion that arises when an individual feels a lack of control

• Depression is the result of the same mechanisms behind learned helplessness
• i.e., Negative emotion, low self-esteem, and passivity are due to low expectations of self-efficacy and perceived non-contingence between actions and outcomes

• Internal/external
• Stable/unstable
• Global/specific

• Pessimistic
• Optimistic

• (Explanatory style)

The way we perceive the world and act within it is influenced by

• Expectations
• Experiences
• Beliefs

• Better mental & physical health
• Less stress
• Better social skills
• Better work satsifaction & performance
• Responsibility
• Problem-solving

• Hopefulness
• Feeling autonomous versus victimized

• Believing you are in control even when that would be impossible
• Observed in Americans

• Sense of control over a situation through tackling it/taking charge

• Feeling in control of a situation by accepting it

• Academic performance
• Athletic victory
• Political victory

• Attributing positive outcomes to yourself and negative outcomes to external factors

• Persisting in the face of adversity
• Optimists are high on self-regulation

1. Identify tasks necessary for the job
2. Identify personality traits necessary for the job
3. Assess the candidates endorsed traits and interpret