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Definition
| nerves in our body that innervate skeletal muscles |
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Definition
| no conscious control; controls smooth muscle, i.e. stomach, heart, lungs |
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Term
| Sympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
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| Parasympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
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Definition
| major cell type in the nervous system, specialized for communication with one another |
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Definition
supporting cells of the nervous system
means "glue"
10x more than neurons
smaller than neurons
come in a variety of shapes and sizes
provide nourishment by sticking to blood vessels and sucking out the nutrients
remove waste products and dead neurons
form scar tissue (gliosis) |
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| part of the neuron that receives information; receive input from up to thousands of other neurons |
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Definition
part of the neuron that carries information away from the cell body
typically have only one
starts at the axon hillock, which integrates signals
conducts axon potentials
ends in terminal boutons where neurotransmitters are stored |
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Definition
| carry information from the CNS to muscles and glands; located in the motor nuclei, ganglia, and spinal cord |
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Definition
respond to stimuli in the periphery and then carry information to the brain and spinal cord
found in ganglia, i.e. dorsal root ganglia (DRGs), the ganglia right outside the spinal cord |
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Definition
situated between two neurons
have short axons
can be found in the brain and spinal cord
work as a "relay station" in a specific area of the brain or spinal cord |
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Definition
a fatty material that forms a sheath around axons
formed by ogliodendrocytes and Schwann cells |
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Definition
| breaks between glial cells on an axon |
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Definition
areas in the cell membrane that either allow or block ions from passing through; at rest, the cell allows more potassium in and blocks sodium, making the inside of the cell more negatively charged; when in a state of unrest (action potential), the cell allows
to contribute to the negative resting charge, some potassium leaves the cell |
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Term
| Diffusion (diffusion gradient) |
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Definition
| the tendency of ions to move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration |
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Term
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Definition
| opposite charges attract, and like charges repel |
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Definition
ion channels open and sodium rushes into the cell; change in voltage from -70mV to +40mV; cell becomes depolarized then sodium channels close and potassium leaves the cell, making the cell hyperpolarized
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
2 potassium ions come in, 3 sodium ions leave
requires energy (ATP) |
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Term
| Absolute refractory period |
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Definition
| the state of a neuron right after the action potential in which the neuron cannot fire another action potential for a few milliseconds |
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Term
| Relative refractory period |
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Definition
| the state of a neuron right after the absolute refractory period in which the neuron may fire another action potential, but it takes more energy |
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Term
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Definition
| electrical change in the negative resting potential |
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Term
| Excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP) |
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Definition
depolarization = .5mV
[image] |
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Term
| Inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP) |
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Definition
| hyperpolarization = -.5mV |
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Definition
it takes -55mV to initiate an action potential
all-or-none law |
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Definition
| the movement of action potential down the axon |
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Term
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Definition
a junction between two neurons
can be chemical or electrical |
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Definition
| the space between two neurons in a chemical synapse |
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Definition
| the cell that comes before the synapse |
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Definition
| the cell that comes after the synapse |
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Definition
| tiny sac where neurotransmitters are stored |
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Term
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Definition
| an area on the dendrites where neurotransmitters are received and bind |
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Term
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Definition
| ionotropic; made up of 5 subunits; Cl- ion channel; has multiple binding sites; inhibitory; makes the cell more negative and moves it away from threshold |
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Term
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Definition
| metabotropic; gates K+ channel; |
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Term
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Definition
| anti-anxiety medications (e.g. Valium); also helps prevent epileptic convulsions; aids GABAa in bringing more Cl into the cell |
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Term
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Definition
| sleep agents, and in higher doses, anesthetics; works with GABAa to increase Cl flow into the cell, but in high enough doses, can replace GABA |
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Term
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Definition
| enhances the binding of GABAa; increased Cl and increased inhibition; "depressed" nervous system (clumsiness, slurred speech) |
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Definition
An excitatory neurotransmitter (opens K+ channels);
Found at the neuromuscular junction
Blocking this causes paralysis of the muscles
Too much of this causes convulsions and muscle contractions; used by black widow spiders
The main neurotransmitter for the parasympathetic nervous system
Loss of this in the basal forebrain particularly causes Alzheimer's |
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Term
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Definition
A monoamine neurotransmitter
Inhibit cyclic AMP; associated with schizophrenia
Released in areas of the brain involved in pleasure/reward, voluntary movement, motivation, learning, and memory
Too little causes Parkinson's
Too much causes schizophrenia
Does not cross the blood-brain barrier |
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Term
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Definition
| caused by dying dopamine neurons, mostly in the Substantia Nigra (area of the midbrain containing dopamine neurons) |
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Term
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Definition
caused by too much dopamine
positive symptoms: hallucinations
negative symptoms: flat affect
cognitive deficits: trouble paying attention
treated with antagonists that block dopamine (really only treat the positive symptoms) |
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Term
| Norepinephrine and epinephrine |
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Definition
| used in the sympathetic nervous system; associated with mood, sleep, arousal, and eating |
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Term
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Definition
A neurotransmitter that plays an important role in mood, sleep, arousal, and eating; works in the Raphe nuclei to induce sleep
Psychedelic drugs bind to these receptors |
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Term
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Definition
| Neurotransmitters with inhibitory effects; associated with pain relief, eating, reward, and autonomic function |
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Term
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Definition
| active ingredient: THC, binds to cannabinoid receptors in the brain; available for medical use; in low doses, may stimulate neuron production in the elderly, which improves cognitive function |
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Term
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Definition
Protects the central nervous system
Layer closest to skull: dura mater- very thick and opaque, rough, and strong
Layer 2: arachnoid layer- has a web-like appearance; lots of blood vessels; contains cerebral spinal fluid; choroid plexus- where cerebral spinal fluid is made
Layer closest to brain: pia mater- thin, translucent, delicate, clingy |
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Definition
| part of the spinal cord in the neck; sends out projections that help with the movement of the arms, upper chest, and neck |
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Term
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Definition
| part of the spinal cord in the upper back; control the core muscles in the upper chest and abdomen |
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Term
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Definition
| part of the spinal cord in the lower back; controls movement of the lower abdomen, legs, and feet |
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Term
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Definition
| part of the spinal cord in the pelvis; controls the reproductive organs |
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Term
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Definition
| the tail bone; useless in humans, but controls the tail in animals |
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Term
| Hindbrain (rhombencephalon) |
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Definition
Part of the brain directly above the spinal cord; most primitive part of the brain
Medulla
Pons
Cerebellum |
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Term
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Definition
Smallest division of the brain
Colliculi |
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Term
| Forebrain (prosencephalon) |
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Definition
| Most advanced part of the brain |
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Definition
| swollen part of the spinal cord; contains a lot of white (tracts) and grey (nuclei) matter; controls vital life functions |
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Term
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Definition
| continuation of the medulla; means "bridge"; composed primarily of tracts; contralateral; relays sensory information |
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Definition
| large part of the hindbrain; arbor vitae; important for coordination of movement |
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Definition
| help guide eye movements and fixation of gaze |
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Term
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Definition
| help locate direction of sounds |
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Definition
| Starts below the medulla, extends up through the midbrain, and ends at the forebrain; responsible for arousal, attention, and sleep |
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Definition
| Found in the midbrain; projects to the basal ganglia; appears black because it contains melanin, because dopamine has a lot of melanin; controls movement, and is thought to be the main part of the brain involved in Parkinson's |
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Definition
| Important part of the midbrain involved in reward |
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Definition
| Processes sensory information and serves as a gateway to the cortex; does not include smell |
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Definition
| Controls homeostasis, hunger, sex drive, internal temperature, and circadian rhythm |
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Definition
Part of the limbic system in the forebrain that controls spatial memory; looks like a seahorse
H.M. had seizures, they removed this, and the seizures went away, but he got anterograde amnesia
Morris water maze- when this part of the brain is inhibited, they can't remember where the platform is |
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Definition
| Plays an important role in negative emotions- fear, anger, aggression |
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Definition
| Receives projections from the substantia nigra; controls movement; implicated in motor diseases like Parkinson's and Choreas |
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Term
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Definition
| Most massive area of the forebrain; |
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Term
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Definition
Top layer of the cerebrum;
Gyrus
Sulcus
Fissure |
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Term
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Definition
| Raised areas or peaks in the cerebral cortex |
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Term
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Definition
Basic structure of muscles
Composed of filaments- actin (protein) and myosin (ATP-dependent protein)
Z-lines- where actin is attached |
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Term
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Definition
| Receptor sites on muscles; neuromuscular junction; uses acetylcholine |
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Term
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Definition
| Neurons that can only communicate with one muscle, but with several fibers |
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Definition
| The number of muscle fibers a neuron communicates with |
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Term
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Definition
Involved in fine motor control
primary motor cortex (pre-central gyrus, parietal lobe) > spinal cord (dorsalateral corticospinal tract) > crosses at the decussation of the pyramids (medulla) |
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Term
| Extrapyramidal motor system |
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Definition
Involved in gross postural adjustments; arises from cerebellum, basal ganglia, and reticular formation; does not crossover at the pyramids- several synapses along the way
cerebellum, reticular formation, or basal ganglia > integrates information in the brain on the way to the SC > spinal cord > does not cross at decussation |
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Term
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Definition
| Caused by damage to the basal ganglia; movement disorder that causes excessive movement; excessive dopamine and glutamate |
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Term
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Definition
| Caused by damage to the basal ganglia; characterized by destruction of dopamine-producing cells in the substantia nigra; too little dopamine, causes slow, rigid movement and trembling |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of converting an external energy or substance into a neural signal |
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Term
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Definition
| Not responding as strongly to a stimulus to which one has had excessive exposure |
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Definition
| attached to sensory neurons in muscles; detects the stretching of muscles, sends signal to spinal cord, which sends a signal to motor neurons, producing the stretch reflex ("head-bobbing" motion when sleeping in class) |
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Term
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Definition
| Located within the papilla; composed of taste cells (hundreds; each responds to only one taste quality); contain chemoreceptors for all five taste qualities (no "taste map" on the tongue) |
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Term
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Definition
| "Tiny hair"; located on the taste cells in the papillae; contain chemoreceptors that detect the stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| bind to ligand-gated channels |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| bind to ligand-gated channels |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
(FIND DIAGRAM IN POWERPOINT)
CN facial 7, glossopharyngeal 9, and vagus 10 > nucleus of the solitary tract > VPM nucleus of the thalamus > primary taste cortex (frontal lobe) |
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Term
| Nucleus of the solitary tract |
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Definition
| AKA gustatory nucleus; located in the medulla; receives and initially processes information from the cranial nerves involved in taste |
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Term
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Definition
| Primary taste cortex; area of the frontal lobe where taste is processed; gets information from the thalamus |
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Term
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Definition
| Inability to taste; caused by genetics, brain damage, or viral infection; usually cannot taste only one taste quality |
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Definition
| Ends in the olfactory cortex (temporal lobe) and prefrontal cortex |
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Term
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Definition
| The tissue at the top of the nasal cavity; contains olfactory sensory neurons; bipolar cells, cell body is in the epithelium |
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Term
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Definition
| Skin layer that covers the epithelium; dendrites from the epithelium extend into this; cilia at the end of the dendrites contain olfactory receptors |
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Term
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Definition
| Area of the skull through which the axons of the olfactory sensory neurons pass; very porous layer of skull |
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Term
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Definition
| Located in the forebrain; where the olfactory nerve ends and delivers information; only sense that skips the thalamus |
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Term
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Definition
| Inability to smell odors; caused by trauma, viral infections, or certain disorders |
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Term
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Definition
| Information about the body taken to the brain; uses mechanoreceptors; skin senses (pressure, touch, pain, temperature), kinesthesia, proprioception, interoception |
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Term
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Definition
| Skin receptors that detect pressure |
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Term
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Definition
| skin receptors that are sensitive to warm temperatures |
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Definition
| skin receptors that are sensitive to light touch |
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Term
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Definition
| skin receptors that detect pain |
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Term
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Definition
| myelinated fibers with a large diameter in the somatosensory system; A-beta and A-delta; detect immediate, sharp pain |
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Term
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Definition
| somatosensory fibers that detect pressure and stretching |
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Term
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Definition
| smaller somatosensory fibers that detect pain |
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Term
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Definition
| small, unmyelinated, thin axons that respond to pain and temperature (dull, aching pain) |
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Term
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Definition
a pathway in the somatosensory system that carries information about pressure, touch, and stretching to the brain; uses A-beta fibers
somatosensory receptors in skin (Meissner's corpuscles) > A-beta fibers > CNS (dorsal columns of SC) > synapse with neurons in the medulla > synapse in the decussation in the medulla > medial lemniscus (brainstem, midbrain) > synapse in the thalamus (ventral basal nuclei) > primary somatosensory cortex (post-central gyrus) |
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Term
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Definition
a pathway in the somatosensory system that carries information about pain and temperature to the brain; uses A-delta and C-fibers
somatosensory receptors in the skin (free nerve endings) > A-delta and C-fibers > synapse in the spinal cord (substantia gelatinosa) > axons cross over in SC (not in the medulla) > spinothalamic tract > thalamus (posterior nuclei) > primary somatosensory cortex (post-central gyrus) |
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Term
| Primary somatosensory cortex |
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Definition
| located in the post-central gyrus (parietal lobe; processes information from the skin and muscles |
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Term
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Definition
| brainstem regions and A tactile fibers inhibit (or "gate") ascending pain pathway; periaqueductal gray and ventral lateral medulla |
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Term
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Definition
| an excitatory neurotransmitter that aids in the sensation of pain; released from spinal cord and thalamus |
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Term
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Definition
| inhibitory neurotransmitters that reduce pain; natural analgesia that inhibits Substance P |
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Term
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Definition
released in discrete packets of energy called photons, which activate photoreceptors in the visual field
390-750nm
violet: 380-450nm
blue: 450-475nm
cyan: 476-495nm
green: 495-570nm
yellow: 570-590nm
orange: 590-620nm
red: 620-750nm |
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Term
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Definition
| white part of the eye; covers most of the eye except for the iris |
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Term
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Definition
| transparent structure over the iris |
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Term
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Definition
| liquid area behind the cornea that provides nutrients to the cornea |
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Term
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Definition
| "hole" in the iris that allows light into the eye; autonomic nervous system dictates when the pupil dilates and contracts |
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Term
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Definition
| whitish/clear disc behind the iris that is attached to the ciliary muscles; aids in accommodation of the eye to see far-away objects or close-up objects |
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Term
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Definition
| jelly-like substance behind the lens |
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Term
| Process of detecting light |
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Definition
| light comes in through all cells, activates rods and cones, which activate bipolar cells, which activate ganglion cells, which send signals to the optic nerve and to the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| membrane covering the inside of the eye; covered in blood vessels and photoreceptors; converts light into neural activity and sends signals to the brain via the optic nerve |
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Term
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Definition
| innermost layer of cells in the retina |
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Term
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Definition
| receptors in the eye that detect light; when there is no light, they continually release glutamate; when there is light, there is a decrease in glutamate release, which causes hyperpolarization |
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Term
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Definition
about 120 million of these cells in the eye; located in the periphery of the retina; highly sensitive in dim light; not color sensitive; not detail sensitive - helps us distinguish shape and form, motion
outer segment contains photopigments, inner segment is where neurotransmitters are released |
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Term
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Definition
about 6 million of these in the eye; located in the center of the retina; not sensitive in dim light; color sensitive; detail sensitive
outer segment contains photopigments, inner segment is where neurotransmitters are released |
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Term
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Definition
information coming into the eye from the ipsilateral visual field always crosses at the optic chiasm; information coming into the eye from the contralateral visual field does not cross at the optic chiasm >
Photoreceptors > bipolar cells > ganglion cells > optic nerve > optic chiasm > optic tract > thalamus- lateral geniculate nucleus > V1- primary visual cortex > V2- secondary visual cortex > V3, V4, or V5 |
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Term
| Ventral stream (WHAT pathway) |
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Definition
the visual pathway that carries information about color, shape, and form; ends up in the inferior temporal lobe; cones are the primary photoreceptor
uses parvocellular ganglion cells
4 layers of parvocellular neurons in the thalamus; receives input from parvocellular ganglion cells
V1 (blob regions) > V2 (thin stripes) > interstripes [shape and form information] > |
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Term
| Dorsal stream (WHERE pathway) |
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Definition
the visual pathway that carries information about spatial relationships, shape and form, and motion; ends up in the posterior parietal lobe; rods are the primary photoreceptor
uses magnocellular ganglion cells
2 layers of magnocellular neurons in the thalamus; receives input from magnocellular ganglion cells
V1 (interblob regions) > V2 (thick stripes) > interstripes [shape and form information] > |
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Term
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Definition
| uses the WHAT pathway; uses cones > parvocellular ganglion cells > thalamus (LGN, parvocellular neurons) > blobs of V1 > thin stripes of V2 > V4 > inferior temporal cortex |
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Term
| Processing of shape and form |
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Definition
| uses both WHAT and WHERE pathways; parvocellular ganglion cells > thalamus (LGN, parvocellular neurons) > V1 (simple cells and complex cells) > V2 (interstripes) > V3 > inferior temporal cortex |
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Term
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Definition
| uses the WHERE pathway; rods > magnocellular ganglion cells > magnocellular neurons in LGN > V1 (interblobs) > V2 (thick stripes) > V5 > posterior parietal lobe |
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Term
| Processing of depth and spatial relations |
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Definition
| mostly rods, but also cones > magnocellular (but also parvocellular) ganglion cells > magnocellular (but also parvocellular) LGN neurons > interblob (but also blob) regions of V1 > interstripe (but also thick stripe) regions of V2 > V3 and V5 > posterior parietal lobe |
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Term
| Processing the location of objects with the eyes |
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Definition
| superior colliculus > V5 > posterior parietal lobe |
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Term
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Definition
| frequency of sound waves (Hz) |
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Term
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Definition
| complexity of the sound; voices, instruments |
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Term
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Definition
| height of a sound wave from baseline to peak |
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Term
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Definition
| part of the ear that funnels sound further into the ear |
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Term
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Definition
| part of the ear that transmits sound into the inner ear |
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Term
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Definition
| part of the ear that converts vibration into neural signal |
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Term
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Definition
| fleshy part of the outer ear that you can see; collects, focuses, and localizes sound |
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Term
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Definition
| tube-shaped part of the outer ear; approximately 2.5 cm long and 7 mm wide; ends with the tympanic membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| eardrum; separates the outer ear from the middle ear |
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Term
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Definition
| bones that amplify sound and transfer vibrations from air to fluid; malleus, incus, and stapes |
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Term
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Definition
| canal that runs from the middle ear to the throat; allows air to move in and out of the ear and relieves pressure |
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Term
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Definition
| separates the middle ear from the inner ear; vibrates in response to vibrations from the middle ear and causes fluid in the cochlea to vibrate |
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Term
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Definition
snail-shaped structure that contains fluid
scala vestibuli, scala media, and scala tympani |
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Term
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Definition
| a thin, flexible membrane that supports the hair cells and vibrates in response to vibrations from the cochlea; in turn vibrates the organ of Corti |
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Term
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Definition
| hair cells attached to the organ of Corti are stuck in this membrane; when hair cells vibrate, they detect the pulling and stretching and generate action potentials |
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Term
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Definition
| structure between the basilar and tectorial membranes that contains hair cells |
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Term
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Definition
| Auditory branch of CN8 (auditory nerve) > cochlear nucleus (medulla) > superior olive (hindbrain; processes pitch) > reticular formation and cerebellum AND inferior colliculus (midbrain) >medial geniculate nucleus (thalamus) > auditory cortex (temporal lobe) |
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Term
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Definition
| hearing loss caused by blockage of the external auditory meatus |
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Term
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Definition
| hearing loss caused by damage to structures in the middle ear (i.e. eardrum, ossicles) |
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Term
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Definition
| hearing loss caused by damage to the hair cells in the cochlea (usually caused by longterm exposure to loud noises) |
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Term
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Definition
| hearing loss caused by damage to the auditory nerve, which can occur as a result of trauma or infection; non-correctable |
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Term
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Definition
| hearing loss caused by damage to any of the brain structures along the auditory pathway |
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Term
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Definition
| vestibular organs in the ear; utricle and saccule |
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Term
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Definition
| tells the brain when the head is upright; macula is horizontal with hair cells at the base |
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Term
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Definition
| tells the brain when the head is horizontal; macula is vertical with hair cells on the walls |
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Term
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Definition
| a vestibular structure that responds to changes in head movement; hair cells contained in cristae, covered by a gelatinous cupola covering that pulls the hairs in response to movement |
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Term
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Definition
| swellings at the end of each semicircular canal |
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Term
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Definition
| structure in the ampullae that contains hair cells; cupola-covering covers the hair cells |
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Term
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Definition
| eye movements to compensate for head movements |
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Term
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Definition
| oscillation of the eyes following stimulation of the vestibular system (i.e. after spinning in circles) |
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Term
| Similarities between vestibular and auditory systems |
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Definition
Hair cells; cranial nerve 8- vestibular branch; medulla- vestibular nuclei;
Branches: neurons contacted by CN 3, 4, and 6; cerebellum; spinal cord; nucleus of the solitary tract; cortex |
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Term
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Definition
A system of communication that combines symbols (words and gestural signs) in a rule-based way to create meaning
Transmits information from person to person; expresses thoughts and emotions; automatic, complex, and coordinated
Makes use of Broca's area and Wernicke's area |
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Term
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Definition
| usually on the left side of the prefrontal cortex; damage to this causes expressive aphasia (Broca's aphasia), which makes the person have trouble with language production, both spoken and written |
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Term
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Definition
| usually on the left side of the temporal lobe; damage to this causes receptive aphasia (Wernicke's aphasia), which makes it hard to understand language |
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Term
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Definition
| serious speech deficit; not able to communicate effectively; due to damage to Broca's area or Wernicke's area |
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Term
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Definition
Communicates with the basal ganglia; substantia nigra to the striatum; interactions with other areas of the CNS too
Contains lots of dopamine |
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Term
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Definition
| where integration of taste signals occurs (perception) |
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Term
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Definition
| humans can detect up to 10,000 different odors (animals can detect much more) |
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Term
| Secondary somatosensory cortex |
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Definition
| pathway that carries information about what and where a sensation is on your body |
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Term
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Definition
| where the "what" somatosensory pathway ends; damage to this causes tactile agnosia |
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Term
| Posterior parietal cortex |
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Definition
| where the "where" somatosensory pathway ends; visual "where" system is in a similar location; important to produce a sense of body image |
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Term
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Definition
| egg-shaped organs that all embryos have; have a cortex ("bark") and a medulla (innermost part); if a Y chromosome is present, they will turn into testes; if a Y chromosome is not present, they will turn into ovaries |
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Term
| Organizational effects of sex hormones on internal genitalia |
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Definition
Permanent, irreversible effects; i.e. brain development, gonad development
Effects on internal genitalia: embryos have two sets of internal organs-- Wolffian ducts and Mullerian ducts; if testosterone and Mullerian inhibiting substance (testes) are present, Wolffian duct will develop into male internal genitalia; if no testosterone or Mullerian inhibiting substance (ovaries) are present, Mullerian system develops into female internal genitalia |
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Term
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Definition
| Develop into male internal genitalia; vas deferens, epididymis, prostate gland |
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Definition
| Develop into female internal genitalia; uterus, fallopian tubes, vagina |
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Term
| Organizational effects of sex hormones on external genitalia |
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Definition
permanent, irreversible effects; i.e. brain development, gonad development
Unisex external appearance; in males, testosterone is converted to DHT and changes the undifferentiated genitalia into the penis and scrotum; if testosterone/DHT is not present, it defaults to the female external genitalia (clitoris, labia minora, labia majora) |
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Definition
| missing a sex chromosome; only one X; "default" female body; typically sterile; short stature and webbed necks; cognitive deficits |
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Term
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Definition
| extra sex chromosomes; typically XXY; male body will develop; symptoms can be weak; hypogonadism (poorly functioning gonads) and low fertility; increased breast tissue |
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Term
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Definition
| born with both testicular and ovarian tissue; 46 chromosomes, XX and a fragment of a Y chromosome; testosterone released by testes produces male internal and external genitalia; if Mullerian inhibiting substance is not produced, female internal genitalia will also develop |
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Term
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Definition
| 46 chromosomes, XY; testes develop, as well as Wolffian system; because there is no DHT, female external genitalia develop; looks female until puberty, when testosterone surges, and a penis develops; most readily adopt male gender role |
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Definition
| typically lasts 28 days; menstruation on days 1-5 |
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Definition
openness of a woman to having sex; ovulation is usually associated with sexual receptivity in females of most species
human beings are sexually receptive throughout their ovarian cycle; initiated sexual behavior peaks at ovulation; testosterone is thought to be responsible for the peak in sexual activity |
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Term
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Definition
males that can only breed at certain times of the year
Hypothalamus detects seasonal changes (gonadotropin releasing hormone, GRH) > anterior pituitary gland > follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) AND interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) > sperm production AND testosterone production |
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Definition
males that can breed year round; starts breeding at puberty, and hormone secretion continues throughout adulthood
Hypothalamus (GRH) > anterior pituitary gland > follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) AND interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) > sperm production AND testosterone production |
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Term
| Regulation of male sexual behavior |
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Definition
| Medial preoptic area- important for male sexual behavior; dopamine stimulates MPA; serotonin inhibits dopamine; SSRIs can therefore inhibit male sexual behavior |
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Term
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Definition
Daily biological rhythm; sleep cycle
Approximately one day; cyclical changes that occur on a roughly 24-hour basis in many biological processes
Disruptions in this rhythm include changing work shifts, jet lag, cramming or an exam, daylight savings time |
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Term
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Definition
Located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN); internal pacemaker; during the day, neurons here are very active, but at night, they are inactive
Can be studied by lesioning the SCN and observing the animal's behavior |
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Definition
Hormone released from the pineal gland that aids in sleep
Levels are highest at night and lowest in the day |
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Definition
Very slow, regular brainwave activity
Measured by an EEG, EMG, or EOG |
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Term
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Definition
Short, fast, irregular brainwave activity
Measured by an EEG, EMG, or EOG
Characterize wakefulness |
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Term
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Definition
Non-REM sleep; stages 1-4 of sleep
No eye movements
Dreaming is less frequent and more mundane; dreams about things we're worried about or preoccupied with
Sleepwalking and acting out dreams can occur at this time |
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Term
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Definition
| Characterized by beta waves; 13-50 waves/second; initiated by the reticular formation/locus coeruleus (brain stem) which release norepinephrine |
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Term
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Definition
| Characterized by alpha waves; 8-12 waves/second; characterized by parasympathetic activity; initiated by the reticular formation/locus coeruleus (brain stem) which release norepinephrine |
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Term
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Definition
Short sleep stage, ~5 minutes; characterized by desynchronized theta waves (4-7 waves/second)
Muscle spasms occur in this stage ("falling" feeling) |
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Term
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Definition
Characterized by sleep spindles (short bursts of fast brain activity) and K complexes (large spikes in brain activity)
Transitional phase between desynchronized and synchronized brainwaves |
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Term
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Definition
Characterized by slow, synchronized delta waves (1-2 waves/second)
Stage 3: less than 50% of brainwaves are delta waves
Stage 4: the majority of brainwaves are delta waves
As the night goes on, each consecutive sleep cycle contains less Stage 4 sleep and more REM sleep
Initiated by the Raphe nuclei (which release serotonin) |
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Term
| REM sleep (paradoxical sleep) |
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Definition
Rapid eye movement; a very active period of sleep in which brain activity appears awake; high frequency, low activity
Muscles are paralyzed at this time
Vivid, bizarre dreams occur at this time
Overall activity: beta waves; theta waves in the hippocampus
Simultaneous activity in the pons, LGN, and occipital lobe (PGO spikes)
Lack of awareness of external sensory stimuli (unless it is VERY strong)
Dreams during this stage of sleep are internally generated; the reticular thalamic nuclei gates sensory information from the limbic system to the cortex
Initiated by various nuclei in the pons (which release acetylcholine)
Essential to stay alive; rats put on a platform in a tub of water that allows them to enter stage 3 and 4 of sleep, but as soon as REM sleep begins, they fall off into the water and wake up |
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Term
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Definition
| Spikes of activity during REM sleep that occur simultaneously in the pons, LGN, and occipital lobe |
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Definition
Most common sleep disturbance (15% of people experience it chronically); inability to get to sleep or stay asleep
Becomes recurrent if we get anxious about not being able to fall asleep
Can be treated with benzodiazepines, which can cause rebound insomnia (worse form of insomnia) when the person stops taking the medicine |
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Term
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Definition
Disorder characterized by the rapid and often unexpected onset of sleep
Includes cataplexy (loss of muscle control)
Thought to be due to low levels of orexin |
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Term
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Definition
Caused by a blockage of the airway during sleep
2-20% of population experience this
Characterized by loud snoring, gasping, and brief periods of not breathing |
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Definition
A kind of bad dream; more common
Occurs during REM sleep
Normally able to describe the bad dream |
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Term
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Definition
A kind of bad dream; extremely bad and terrifying
Occurs during NREM sleep; often awake startled
Normally aware that they had a bad dream, but cannot describe the dream
More frequent in childhood |
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Term
| Somnambulism (sleepwalking) |
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Definition
Walking while fully asleep; most frequent in childhood
Typically involves little activity, and is normally harmless
Occurs during NREM sleep |
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Term
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Definition
Being alert/aroused, orienting to a particular stimulus, and processing information in working memory
A cognitive process that is affected by the level of consciousness
Key regions in the prefrontal cortex
Can be studied with an EEG; evoked potentials- measured change in brain activity following presentation of a stimulus
Can implant electrodes into the brain which measure the evoked potentials from the surrounding cells
Early component of the evoked potential: ~20msec after stimulation; response of sensory system to stimulus
Late component of the evoked potential: ~100msec after stimulation; attentional response to stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
Focusing of receptors on important stimuli
Reticular formation is essential for orienting; destruction of this area causes inability to orient |
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Term
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Definition
Processing information about relevant stimuli and ignoring irrelevant information
Uses the posterior attention system, anterior attention system, and vigilance system |
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Term
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Definition
Balance, equilibrium, constant internal state
Hypothalamus plays a big part; directly communicates with the pituitary gland |
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Term
| Ectothermic (cold-blooded) |
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Definition
| Get body heat from external sources |
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Term
| Endothermic (warm-blooded) |
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Definition
Get body heat from internal source; relatively constant body temperature
Balancing heat production and heat loss to maintain constant internal body temperature; preoptic area of the hypothalamus has temperature sensitive neurons, signals... |
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Term
| Preoptic area of the hypothalamus |
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Definition
Important part of the brain in sexual behavior; greatly influenced by testosterone; also helps regulate body temperature; also helps regulate drinking
3rd interstitial nucleus is included here |
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Term
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Definition
Shivering to produce body heat
Preoptic area of the hypothalamus > cerebellum > SC > motor neurons > skeletal muscle contractions |
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Term
| Non-shivering thermal genesis |
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Definition
Producing body heat in ways that do not include shivering
Changing basal metabolism- normally minimum energy expended when at rest; all basic life functions produce heat |
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Term
| Changing basal metabolism |
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Definition
Form of non-shivering thermogenesis
Preoptic hypothalamus detects that you're cold > anterior pituitary (releases thyrotropin-releasing hormone) > thyroid gland > calorigenic hormones (i.e. thyroxin) |
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Term
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Definition
Form of non-shivering thermogenesis; mostly in human babies
Brown fat deposits on head and chest; hypothalamus directs burning of brown fat when core temperature is lowered |
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Term
| Heat loss via evaporation |
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Definition
| Liquid turns into gas; panting, sweating, jumping into a cold pool |
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Term
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Definition
| Losing heat from our bodies to surrounding air or objects; air is a poor conductor of heat |
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Term
| Vascular control of heat loss |
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Definition
| Superficial blood vessels dilate when hot (allow blood flow to the skin, resulting in increased heat loss) and constrict when cold (blood flow to the skin decreases, restricting heat loss) |
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Term
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Definition
| When animals with fur or feathers get cold, their hair or feathers stand upright to trap more air and conserve body heat; goosebumps in humans, though humans do not have enough hair for this to be insulating |
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Term
| Intracellular homeostatic mechanisms |
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Definition
| Maintaining equilibrium via maintaining a constant concentration of solutes in the cells |
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Term
| Extracellular homeostatic mechanisms |
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Definition
| Maintaining equilibrium via... |
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Term
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Definition
Happens when the concentration of solutes inside the cell is greater than normal (1.5M)
Eating salty or sugary foods > solute concentration is higher in the blood > water leaves cells and they shrink > concentration of solutes inside the cell increases
Lamina terminalis of the anterior hypothalamus > paraventricular nucleus & supraoptic nucleus AND lateral preoptic area, which initiates drinking > posterior pituitary > vasopressin > kidneys stop producing urine |
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Term
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Definition
Happens when fluid in the extracellular compartment becomes reduced in volume
Caused by profuse sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, hemorrhage; causes drop in blood pressure
Baroreceptors detect blood pressure has dropped > signal kidneys to release renin > interacts with angiotensin I which creates angiotensin II > triggers blood vessels to constrict and also communicates with the subfornical organ > preoptic area, which triggers drinking |
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Term
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Definition
| Drinking due to actual need for liquid; osmotic and hypovolemic |
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Term
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Definition
| Drinking in the absence of thirst; prandial |
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Term
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Definition
| Drinking that occurs when eating food during a meal; does not actually alleviate thirst |
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Term
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Definition
| Non-homeostatic cues that initiate eating; anticipation of hunger, social situations, etc. |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of the brain responsible for allostasis and initiation of eating; stimulation of this area induces eating behavior in rats; lesioning of this area induces aphagia |
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Term
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Definition
| Part of the brain responsible for maintaining homeostasis; a detector for changes in the body; once it's stimulated enough, it initiates eating |
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Term
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Definition
| A neurotransmitter...something about fat intake |
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Term
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Definition
| A neurotransmitter secreted by neurons in the hypothalamus and brainstem; very important for homeostasis, particularly the intake of carbs |
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Term
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Definition
Another reason for initiation of eating that is not related to homeostasis or allostasis; we eat more when we find food rewarding
Reward and eating circuits in the brain overlap; opiates and cannabinoids make the user crave fatty foods (morphine, pot, etc.) |
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Term
| Drugs that facilitate food intake |
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Definition
| Benzodiazepines and barbiturates increase the activity of GABA and increase food intake |
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Term
| Ventral medial nucleus of the hypothalamus (VMH) |
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Definition
| A central eating offset mechanism; induces satiety; lesioning of this induces hyperphagia |
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Term
| Androgen insensitivity syndrome |
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Definition
Testes develop but never descend, staying in place ovaries would be
XY > testes > testosterone > Mullerian inhibiting substance > Wolffian system and Mullerian system go away (but maintain female external genitalia) |
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Term
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Definition
Part of the brain that helps in inducing sleep; release of serotonin
Has a lot of serotonin |
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Term
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Definition
A satiety hormone released from the duodenum; released into the blood and travels to the brain; as a neurotransmitter, it can also bind to receptors on the vagus nerve
Inhibits eating |
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Term
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Definition
A satiety hormone released by fat cells (adipose tissue) in our bodies
In OB/OB rats, there is a mutation in the gene that controls this; causes an absence of circulation of this hormone and causes obesity
Most obese humans have too much of this and just don't respond to it anymore |
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Term
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Definition
An eating disorder
Causes: hormonal variations, genetic variations, behavioral factors
People who overeat have high insulin levels, which may cause insensitivity to insulin and therefore more overeating |
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Term
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Definition
| Insulin moves glucose from the blood to cells and signals the hypothalamus to initiate more eating; brain essentially thinks that the body is starving |
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Term
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Definition
| Too little insulin; glucose builds up in the blood; hyperglycemia; increased sugar in blood causes osmotic thirst |
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Term
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Definition
| Too much insulin; glucose moves out of the blood and causes hunger; hypoglycemia |
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Term
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Definition
Cognitive experience; affective reaction; a physiological response (sympathetic nervous system, locus coeruleus, which produces NE, which causes heightened arousal and vigilance; also produces epinephrine from adrenal glands which causes physical symptoms of fight or flight)
Cultural universality; similarities between humans and animals
Somatic nervous system activation (facial nerve 7)
Physiological feedback may not be necessary, but adds intensity; patients with spinal cord injury have full range of emotions
Conscious appraisal may not be necessary, but allows us to plan and execute a response |
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Term
| James-Lange theory of emotion |
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Definition
| The theory that a stimulus produces a physiological response which produces an emotion; you react before you feel an emotion |
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Term
| Cannon-Bard theory of emotion |
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Definition
| The theory that a stimulus elicits an emotion which produces a physiological response |
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Term
| Schachter-Singer theory of emotion |
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Definition
The theory that a person needs to experience physiological arousal and cognitively attribute the arousal to an appropriate stimulus
Gave two groups of participants an injection of epinephrine; activates the sympathetic nervous system; first group thought they were getting a multivitamin, and were not warned about side effects; second group thought they were getting a multivitamin with lots of side effects; participants are then put in a room with an angry or euphoric confederate; the no-side effect group reported the same emotion as the confederate; the side-effect group did not report or demonstrate any change in emotion based on the confederate; group that was not aware of side effects had to attribute those feelings to something, and figured they were having the same response as the confederate, whereas the side-effect-aware group was already expecting it |
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Term
| Vascular theory of emotion |
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Definition
| A theory based on changes in bloodflow through blood vessels in your face rushing out of the face (cavernous sinus), the brain cools just a little and causes happy emotions; blood pooling in the face causes slight warming of the brain and negative emotions |
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Term
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Definition
Right hemisphere- understanding and expression
Both hemispheres- feeling emotion; right - negative, left - positive |
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Term
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Definition
Emotions that evoke a fight or flight response; anger, fear
Amygdala- particularly the central and basolateral nucleus- is most important part of the brain for this
Amygdala may activate the basal ganglia, which organizes and initiates behavior, and the periaqueductal gray; prefrontal cortex is vital to the expression of emotions |
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Term
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Definition
If you put an electrode in this part of the brain and stimulate it, it will produce fear, anxiety, and rage
Damage to this area produces difficulty identifying fear and anger
Imaging has shown that this area is more active when viewing expressions of fear
Contains GABA and endorphin receptors
Lateral nucleus
Central nucleus and basolateral nucleus- most involved in negative emotions |
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Term
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Definition
| Higher levels of this reduces aggression |
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Term
| Norepinephrine and dopamine |
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Definition
| More of these substances increases aggression |
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Term
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Definition
| More of this hormone can increase aggression |
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Term
| Generalized anxiety disorder |
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Definition
Uncontrolled worry
Free-floating chronic (>6 months) worry
Physical symptoms include (autonomic underarousal) headaches, muscle tension, stomach aches, irritability |
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Term
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Definition
Intense fear of an object or situation; greater response than the threat merits
Specific- e.g. spiders, heights, flying
Social- fear of social situations and being scrutinized
Agoraphobia- fear of spaces or areas that are difficult to escape from; e.g. elevators, crowds |
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Term
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Definition
Repeated and >1 hour/day immersion in obsessions, compulsions, or both (typically comorbid)
Obsessions can include contamination, sex, aggression, religion, symmetry
Compulsions can include checking, patterns, counting, arranging, washing, repeating, hoarding |
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Term
| Treatments for anxiety disorders |
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Definition
| Beta blockers, benzodiazepines (except for OCD), SSRIs (works best for OCD) |
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Term
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Definition
Happiness, joy, euphoria
Uses the mesolimbic dopamine pathway; medial forebrain bundle (MFB- bundle of axons between the VTA and nucleus accumbens that release dopamine)
Ventral tagmental (VTA) > nucleus accumbens > prefrontal cortex
Activation of any of these parts causes pleasure |
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Term
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Definition
| A maladaptive use of a substance that is not considered dependent |
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Term
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Definition
When a person becomes physically and psychologically dependent on a substance
Physically dependent when they develop tolerance and withdrawal
Psychologically dependent when cravings occur
Addictive substances activate the reward cascade; also triggered by positive emotions
Addicts can have low levels of D2 receptor activity - A1 allele
Treat withdrawal symptoms and psychological dependence; pharmacological treatments such as methadone |
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Term
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Definition
A negative experience accompanied by characteristic emotional, behavioral, biochemical, and physiological responses
Can be caused by catastrophic events (natural disasters, war, terrorist attacks), major life events (divorce, moving, having a baby, getting fired, death in the family), and hassles (minor life events that are not catastrophic but very annoying; traffic, chores, broken items)
Can be studied by exposing subjects to stressful stimuli or using subjects who are already stressed; can measure depression, hopelessness, anxiety, anger, heart rate, blood pressure, or corticosteroids
Paraventricular nucleus receives info from various areas of the nervous system about stressors (NST (major organs like gut), tegmentum and reticular formation (somatosensory input), periaqueductal gray (pain), locus coeruleus (detects changes in heart rate, blood pressure), limbic system (BNST)) > triggers a cascade of events that results in stress hormones being released |
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Term
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Definition
Initiated by locus coeruleus-- activates the sympathetic nervous system; increases heart rate, blood flow, and respiration
Also initiated by the paraventricular nucleus-- Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis-- hypothalamus releases corticotropic-releasing hormone (CRH > anterior pituitary releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) > stimulates the adrenal glands to produce glucocorticoids (corticosterone in animals, cortisol in humans) > elevates blood glucose levels to improve brain and body function > negative feedback loop
Interactions between LC and HPA axis: positive feedback loop; reciprocal excitation |
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Term
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Definition
Suppresses our immune systems-- the body's defense against malignant cells or invading pathogens
Easy development of colds |
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Term
| Effects of chronic stress |
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Definition
On the LC: repeated exposure to a stressor causes habituation (decrease in release of NE from the LC); add a novel stressor to the situation causes sensitization (increase in release of NE)
On the HPA axis: negative feedback loop doesn't work as effectively; increased levels of glucocorticoids in the body and brain
Long-term, glucocorticoids can cause regression and loss of dendritic spines in the hippocampus-- learning and memory impairments; increases amount of calcium entering the cells (increases amount of neurotransmitter released); too much calcium can be excitotoxic to neurons and cause cell death; neurons in the hippocampus are particularly vulnerable-- becomes significantly smaller in PTSD patients and people who have experienced long-term abuse |
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Term
| Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) |
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Definition
Hypothalamus releases corticotropic-releasing hormone (CRH)
Anterior pituitary releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Stimulates the adrenal glands to produce glucocorticoids |
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Term
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Definition
Exposure to at least one tragic event
Flashbacks-- reoccurring distressing memories of the event
Hyperactivity of the LC |
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Term
| Major depressive disorder |
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Definition
Lingering depressed mood or diminished interest in pleasurable activities
Eating disturbances, sleep disturbances, lack of energy or restlessness, difficulty concentrating, feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness
Hyperactivity of the HPA axis; excess of CRH and cortisol released; down-regulation of CRH receptors in the brain
Norepinephrine hypothesis: deficit of NE in critical areas of the brain; tricyclic antidepressants and MAOIs are effective treatments; increase NE levels in the synapse; may cause structural changes in neurons that were damaged by chronic stress
Low levels of thyroid hormone in ~30% of depressed patients
Low levels of estrogen (menopause, after childbirth, PMS)
Melatonin dysfunction (less time in SWS; altered distributions of REM) |
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Term
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Definition
| A change in an organism's behavior or thought as a result of experience |
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Term
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Definition
| A change in behavior that has taken place with conscious awareness |
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Term
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Definition
| Acquisition of behavior for which we have no conscious awareness; conditioning, forming habits, habituation |
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Term
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Definition
Change in magnitude of response to environmental events
Habituation and sensitization |
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Term
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Definition
Connection between two elements or events
Classical conditioning and operant conditioning |
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Term
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Definition
Substantial loss of memory and other cognitive abilities in the elderly
Impairments in memory, attention, language, problem solving
Beyond normal aging
Most common form is Alzheimer's Disease |
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Term
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Definition
Disorientation, cognitive impairments in language and declarative memory
Plaques: clumps of amyloid protein that cluster among axon terminals and interfere with neural transmission
Tangles: abnormal accumulation of tau protein inside neurons; associated with death of neurons
Loss of synapses beyond that of normal aging
Degeneration of acetylcholine neurons
Cell death in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex
Enlarged/exaggerated ventricles and sulci |
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Term
| Physical insults to the developing brain |
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Definition
Radiation- affects cell migration
Physical damage to the brain
Diseases and malnutrition; syphilis- deafness and absence of a vestibular system
Genetic abnormalities- Down's Syndrome (3 chromosomes for #21); Holoprosencephaly (only one cerebral hemisphere develops; can also be born with only one eye; cause is unknown) |
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Term
| Brain damage produced by trauma |
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Definition
Concussion: a blow to the head that results in bruising of the brain
Contusion: head is jarred with such force that the brain becomes shifted in the skull and badly bruised
Cerebral laceration: tearing of outer surface of the brain (bullet, pieces of skull, blood clots) |
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Term
| Brain damage produced by disease |
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Definition
Meningitis: bacterial infection of the meninges (protective layers around the brain)
Syphilis: in its final stage gets into the brain; extensive damage to frontal lobes; cognitive and emotional impairments
Viral encephalitis: virus transmitted by mosquitoes; 50% of people with VE will die
AIDS-related dementia: damage to cerebral cortex; emotional blunting, cognitive difficulty, apathy, confusion; 35% of AIDS patients |
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Term
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Definition
Severe mental disorders in which thinking is disturbed and the affected person is not well oriented for person, time, and place
Can be reversible or irreversible |
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Term
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Definition
"Split mind"; disorganization of associations leading to disconnected thoughts, words, and emotions
Loss of contact with reality
Inability to function normally in daily life
1.5% prevalence during lifetime; 2.5 million Americans in a given year; equally split between genders, though males have earlier onset (18-25 for males, 25-35 for females; this is because the prefrontal cortex is not done developing until this age
Positive symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech ("word salad"), motor disturbances
Negative symptoms: social and emotional engagement, appropriate emotional response, normal cognition or affect
Cognitive deficits: organization and reorganization of thoughts, attention deficits
Increased size of ventricles and sulci in the brain (takes up room where frontal lobes would be); decreased activation and size of the amygdala, hippocampus, and frontal lobe
A majority of patients and 45% of their relatives show abnormal saccades in smooth pursuit tasks (eye movements)
Dopamine hypothesis: positive symptoms caused by an excess of dopamine (drugs that inhibit dopamine help control symptoms, drugs that promote dopamine can produce symptoms, like cocaine and amphetamines); increase in density of DA receptors; overactivity of DA in the mesolimbic system (midbrain, amygdala, hippocampus- emotion and reward) and nigrostriatal pathway (substantia nigra to basal ganglia- movement); underactivity of dopamine in the mesocortical pathway (midbrain to cortex- cognition; not affected by antipsychotic drugs)
Glutamate hypothesis: PCP produces symptoms similar to schizophrenia by blocking NMDA glutamate receptor; schizophrenia symptoms may be related to abnormalities with glutamate, because overactivity of DA blocks glutamate release
Prenatal exposure to virus or trauma or other brain development disruptions may be a cause of schizophrenia
Diathesis-stress model: genetics, biological processes, and perinatal insults can all predispose a person to develop schizophrenia; major life stressors can trigger the disorder if good coping skills are not present |
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Term
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Definition
Nucleus accumbens, hippocampus, amygdala, septum, and olfactory bulb
Parts of the prefrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, hypothalamus, thalamus, and midbrain |
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Term
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Definition
If an axon of a presynaptic neuron is active while the postsynaptic neuron is firing, the synapse between them will be strengthened
"Neurons that fire together wire together" |
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Term
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Definition
Limited amounts of info are stored briefly
7 pieces of info at once |
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Term
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Definition
| Large amounts of info is stored indefinitely |
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Term
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Definition
| The process by which short-term memories are transferred to long-term memories |
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Term
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Definition
Temporary register for information while it is being used
Different working memory sites: object identification, spatial location, verbal information
Central executive system: coordinates the different working memory systems; prefrontal cortex & anterior cingulate cortex |
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Term
| Declarative memory (explicit) |
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Definition
Conscious retention of facts and events
Episodic: memory for events in one’s own life (right hemisphere)
Semantic: memory for general knowledge (left hemisphere) |
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Term
| Non-declarative memory (implicit) |
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Definition
Unconscious memory for learned behaviors, habits, skills, and classical conditioning
Involves the cerebellum and corticostriatal pathway |
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Term
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Definition
Inability to encode new memories from our experiences
Can be caused by damage to the hippocampus |
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Term
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Definition
| Loss of memories from our past |
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