Term
| Define domain-general models and give an example of one. |
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Definition
Domain-general models attempt to explain a wide range of different behaviors
according to a simple general rule. The reinforcement-affect and social exchange
models are domain-general. |
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Term
Describe the social exchange theory of relationships. What assumption of this model is shared
with the reinforcement-affect model? |
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Definition
This theory posits that affiliation and friendship are motivated by a single, simple rule:
to maximize the benefits to costs ratio. Two possible shared assumptions are that 1)
both models specify one rule that generalizes to all relationships and 2) that both
assume that we seek rewards in relationships. |
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Term
How do men and women differ in their behavioral responses to imminent danger, and what
are these responses? What hormones are involved for each sex? |
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Definition
Men tend to engage in either a fight response or a flight response. Women typically
tend to their offspring and befriend each other for support. Males typically secrete
additional androgens and females oxytocin when faced with danger. |
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Term
Describe a condition under which people who are not lonely may push away or avoid social
support, and explain why they may do this. Provide an example. |
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Definition
One condition is when they are faced with a potentially embarrassing situation, such as
when they may be asked to act like zoo animals or hold a pacifier in their mouths. They
do this to avoid the feeling of embarrassment associated with other people observing
these behaviors. |
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Term
What is the relationship between infant maternal attachment and later interpersonal
relationships? |
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Definition
Infants with secure maternal attachments tend to have more skill in dealing with peers
as children and adolescents and more intimate and satisfying relationships with others
as adults. |
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Term
| What is Festinger's social comparison theory? |
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Definition
: Social comparison theory states the humans have a need to continually evaluate how
we are doing. If physical standards for comparison are available (such as for how fast
we run a mile race on different days), we will use them. Otherwise, we turn to others,
especially similar others, for comparison. |
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Term
What is self-esteem maintenance theory and when does it say we are likely to feel better about
the success of others? |
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Definition
Self-esteem maintenance theory states that one important goal of social interaction is to
maintain a positive evaluation of oneself. We are likely to feel better if the success of a
person similar to us is in a domain that we do not consider ourselves proficient in. |
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Term
| Define authority ranking exchange relationships and provide an example |
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Definition
Authority ranking is a form of exchange in which goods are divided according to a
person's status in a group. |
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Term
| Describe the proximity-attraction principle, and provide an example from your own life. |
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Definition
The principle states that people tend to become friends with those who live or work
near us. |
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Term
| What is the mere exposure effect? How might it affect name preferences? |
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Definition
The effect is the tendency to feel more positively toward people, places, or things we
have seen frequently. People tend to like names of people, places, and occupations that
sound or look like their own. |
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Term
What is the experience sampling method of studying social relationships? What are the
advantages of experience sampling over retrospective reports of interactions? |
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Definition
The method is an observational technique in which subjects fill out frequent
descriptions of who they are with and what is going on. Advantages include: the fact
that researchers obtain information about real, ongoing behavior, without the problem
of the observer interfering with the interaction; having the participant record the
information soon after the interaction occurs should reduce memory biases that might
be present if the recording is done at a much later time. |
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Term
What are the reinforcement-affect and social exchange models of affiliation? Why are they
called "domain-general" models of attraction? |
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Definition
This reinforcement-affect model posits that we like people with whom we associate
positive feelings and dislike those with whom we associate negative feelings. The social
exchange models states that affiliation and friendship are motivated by a single, simple
rule: to maximize the benefits to costs ratio. The reinforcement-affect and social
exchange models are domain-general because they both specify one simple rule that
generalizes to all relationships. |
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Term
What is health psychology? What are some of the harmful effects of isolation on physical
health, including risk for second heart attacks? |
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Definition
Health psychology: the study of behavioral and psychological factors that affect illness.
Loneliness is associated with sleep disturbances, cancer, headaches, and weaker
immune responses. In addition, lack of social support following an initial heart attack
can decrease the likelihood of a second heart attack. |
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Term
| Describe how loneliness often is a self-perpetuating cycle. |
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Definition
Lonely people are often uncomfortable around others and act in ways that reduce
sources of social support, such as by avoiding others and engaging in unappealing
behavior. This may lead to increased feelings of loneliness and self -defeating thoughts,
which may in turn lead to depression and additional negative interpersonal behavior.
This behavior may push others away and further increase the individual's loneliness. |
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Term
Describe how status may be gained or lost via a personʹs affiliations, and state the term used in
the book to refer to each tendency. Then provide an example from you own life of when you
experienced each of these. |
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Definition
Forming friendships with high status individuals can help us gain status for ourselves
through mere association (known as basking in reflected glory). People often try to
break social connections that could reflect poorly on them (example: dishonest, hostile,
or stigmatized others). This is called cutting off reflected failure. |
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Term
According to Alan Fiske, there are four fundamental types of relationships around the world.
Describe each of these four types of relationships. |
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Definition
Communal sharing: A form of exchange in which all group members share in the
groupʹs resources as needed and depend on one another for mutual care.
Authority ranking: A form of exchange in which goods are divided based upon
peopleʹs status within the group.
Equality sharing: A form of exchange in which each person gets the same as others in
the group.
Market pricing: A form of exchange in which everyone obtains benefits in proportion to
their contributions. |
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Term
What is communal orientation and what kind of relationships do people who are high or low
on this dimension prefer? |
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Definition
Communal orientation reflects the extent to which people believe that each person in a
relationship should give whatever is necessary to satisfy the needs of the other person
in the relationship. People who are high prefer a communal sharing relationship,
whereas people who are low prefer an equity-based relationship. |
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Term
Describe the proximity-attraction principle and the mere-exposure effect, and explain how
they may be related. |
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Definition
The principle states that people tend to become friends with those who live or work
near us. The mere exposure effect is the tendency to feel more positively toward
people, places, or things we have seen frequently. They are related in that we tend to
become friends with people with whom we are in proximity in part because we have
greater exposure to them and thus tend to like them more. |
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Term
How are exchange relationships different in Western and non-Western cultures, and why are
they different? |
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Definition
As compared to more traditional societies, relationships in Western cultures tend to be:
more freely chosen, voluntary, and less permanent. These differences may be related to:
differences in mobility; differences in proximity to kin; differences in individualism vs.
collectivism. |
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Term
What are the four goals of affiliation and friendship? Provide an example of how people may
enact each of the goals. |
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Definition
Four goals: gain social support, obtain information, gain status, and exchange material
benefits. |
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Term
Define passionate love and companionate love. For each, provide an example of a
relationship that would likely be characterized by that type of love. |
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Definition
Passionate love: a state of intense longing for union with another (e.g., a romantic
relationship).
Companionate love: affection and tenderness for those whose lives are entwined with
our own (e.g., the love of a parent for a child). |
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Term
| Define sociosexual orientation and provide an example of each of the two patterns. |
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Definition
Individual differences in tendency to prefer either:
Unrestricted sex (without the necessity of love).
Restricted sex (only in the context of a long-term, loving relationship). |
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Term
What are three physical features of males that are typically seen as attractive by females and
three physical features of females typically seen as attractive by males? |
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Definition
Male features: medium nose; large jaw; symmetrical appearance.
Female features: low waist-to-hip ratio; shiny, lustrous hair; large eyes; small nose. |
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Term
How do men and women compare when it comes to the minimum intelligence levels required
for a one-night stand versus a long-term relationship? |
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Definition
Men have much lower standards than women do for the intelligence level of one -night
stand partners. However, they have very similar standards for long-term relationships. |
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Term
| Why, according to the textbook, donʹt women engage in casual sex as often as men? |
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Definition
Based in part on research with lesbians, the textbook suggests that women are not
concerned about pregnancy. Rather, they tend to shun causal sex because it will not
fulfill the goals they have for relationships: love and intimacy. |
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Term
What is a secure base for an infant or child, and how does this translate into adult
relationships? |
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Definition
Secure base: the comfort provided by attachment figure, often established with a childʹs
mother. A secure base allows the person (whether a child with a mother or an adult
with a romantic partner) to venture forth more confidently to explore the environment |
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Term
| How can long-term relationships be sensibly compared to drug addiction? |
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Definition
Both experiences lose their ability to trigger the momentary high over time; however,
once either habit is established, there are withdrawal symptoms if the supply is cut off.
These symptoms can be painful enough to motivate the person to do almost anything to
obtain a ʹʺfix.ʺ Furthermore, the grief of separation feels much like drug withdrawal
and is influenced by the same opiatelike chemicals in the body. |
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Term
| Define erotomania and provide an example of an erotomaniacal relationship. |
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Definition
Erotomania: a disorder involving the fixed (but incorrect) belief that one is loved by
another, which persists in the face of strong evidence to the contrary. |
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Term
Research has demonstrated that females prefer an unattractive male in a business suit to an
attractive male in a fast food uniform. How might evolutionary theory explain this? |
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Definition
It can be explained by considering the adaptive advantage that women may have had
by mating with males with resources and status, even at the expense of some
attractiveness. That is, women have enhanced the likelihood that they and their
offspring would survive by finding males with the resources and status to protect and
support them. |
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Term
Describe the three components in Sternbergʹs (1986) theory of love. How does each component
change over the course of a typical romantic relationship? |
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Definition
Passion: physiological arousal, longing to be with another. Tends to begin high and
gradually fade over time.
Decision/commitment: decision to love, commitment to a long term relationship. Tends
to grow as passion fades.
Intimacy: close bond, sharing,emotional support. Tends to grow as passion fades. |
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Term
What is factor analysis? Give one example of a research study for which factor analysis would
be useful in analyzing the data. |
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Definition
Factor analysis statistical technique for sorting test items or behaviors into conceptually
similar groupings.
Example: Factor analysis was used to group various features of love into passion,
intimacy, and commitment from ratings of a larger number of items related to these
terms. |
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Term
What is the two-factor theory of love? Be sure to describe both factors and how they
interrelate, and provide an example of a misattribution and how this theory can explain it. |
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Definition
According to this theory, feelings of love consist of: general physiological arousal and a
label for that arousal. The theory posits that we can confuse the specific cause of our
arousal and may mistakenly interpret or label arousal stemming from one source as
attraction or love for another person. Consistent with the theory, men report more
attraction to attractive women they meet in various arousing situations, such as when
they are expecting electric shock, crossing a shaky suspension bridge, or after exercising.
In these examples, the arousal that the men felt was mistakenly labeled by the men as
attraction for a nearby woman. |
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Term
Describe how men and women often interpret interactions between males and females in
different ways, and discuss how evolutionary theory might explain these differences. |
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Definition
Males tend to view female behavior, including compliments, gifts, or touches, as more
seductive and more indicative of sexual interest than women do. Thus, they are prone
to perceiving sexual interest from women when it isnʹt there. This may be an adaptive
response to the fact that women tend to be choosy when selecting male sexual partners.
It is in manʹs interest not to miss possible signs of sexual interest so as not to miss
opportunities for reproduction. Women tend to underperceive a menʹs commitment to
them. This may be adaptive because women have traditionally relied on men for
resources and couldnʹt risk having children with mens who are not truly committed to
her. |
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Term
Explain why children who were close friends in a kibbutz tend not to marry each other as
adults, and what empirical data it violates. |
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Definition
The lack of sexual interest among these children is likely a product of the adaptive
tendency against sexual interest among family members that may have generalized to
an aversion to sexual contact with those raised under the same roof. Data from the
kibbutz violates the classic finding that people tend to marry their neighbors. |
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Term
Describe the three-stage pattern of separation distress for infants, and provide an example of
how this can apply to adult relationships. |
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Definition
The Three-stage Pattern of Separation Distress:
Protest: attempts to re-establish contact
Despair: inactivity and helplessness
Detachment: lack of concern and coolness towards parents
Persons ending romantic relationships may progress through these same stages. |
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Term
In what types of relationships are menʹs and womenʹs preferences for mates the same? In what
types of relationships are there large gender differences in what men and women are looking
for? What are the differences in terms of the characteristics men and women prefer? |
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Definition
Men and women are more similar in their preferences for long-term than short-term
partners. For short (e.g., a date or a one-night stand), men have relatively low
minimum standards for intelligence compared to women, but for long-term
relationships they are more similar with respect to intelligence. More generally, there
are differences in terms of physical and other preferences.
With regard to physical characteristics, some differences are: female
preferences--medium nose; large jaw; symmetrical appearance.; male preferences--
low waist-to-hip ratio; shiny, lustrous hair; large eyes; small nose.
With regard to other features, some differences are: females tend to prefer men with
status and resources, or the potential to gain resources; males tend to prefer women
who are of child-bearing age (particular in their 20s) who appear fertile and healthy. |
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Term
Imagine that a good friend asks you for advice concerning how to improve communication in
her marriage. Describe four research-based recommendations would you give to her? |
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Definition
Students should discuss four of the following:
1. Positive framing: When your partner asks you to do something, say what you can
do rather than what you cannot do or donʹt want to do. Say ʺIʹd enjoy playing tennis"
NOT "I don't want to go hang out with your boring friends again!"
2. Express appreciation: Say ʺThanks for doing the dishesʺ vs. ʺYou missed one!ʺ
3. Avoid silent treatment: Say something when arriving, leaving, or going to bed.
4. Donʹt be a ʺpsychopest.ʺ Donʹt analyze your partnerʹs behavior as a guise for being
a critic. ʺHmm, thatʹs just like your motherʹs behavior.ʺ
5. Speak for yourself, not your partner. Donʹt say ʺI know YOUʹD enjoy a movie -- say
Iʹd really enjoy a movie.
6. Say it directly. Donʹt say ʺdo you want to eat out?ʺ when youʹre thinking ʺIʹm dying
to eat Mexican food.ʺ
7. Nothing nice to say? Then keep quiet. |
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Term
Define the three attachment styles described in the textbook, and describe how they are likely
to be translated into different styles of loving for adults. |
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Definition
Secure: Attachments marked by trust that the other will continue to provide love and
support.
Avoidant: Defensive detachment from the other
Anxious/ambivalent: Fear of abandonment; feeling that oneʹs needs are not being met.
Students should address some (but not necessarily all) of the following key
characteristics for adults:
Secure adults report staying in loving relationships longer than other individuals, and
focus on how they are similar to intimate friends. They also tend to base their
self-worth on family support.
Avoidant individuals find intimacy unpleasant but are prone to jealousy, and focus on
how they are different from intimate friends.
Anxious/ambivalent are more likely to report roller-coaster-like relationships,
relatively higher level of sexual motivation, are less willing to compromise when
finding a mate, may base their self-worth on physical attractiveness, and may perceive
their partner as less supportive and more argumentative. |
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Term
What are the gender differences in jealousy described in the textbook? How might these
differences have been adaptive (for each gender)? |
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Definition
The majority of men reported more distress related to the sexual infidelity, whereas
about 80% of the women were more distressed over emotional attachment. Each
pattern may have been adaptive for the respective genders. Men face paternal
uncertainty (never really knowing if their partnerʹs child is their own) and, in order not
to invest in another manʹs children, must prevent her from copulating with another
man. Even if the woman becomes emotionally attached to another man, as long as sex is
not involved he will know that her children are his children. Women rely on men for
resources and protection for themselves and their offspring, and therefore are more
concerned about losing these if their partner becomes emotionally attached to another
woman. If the man simply copulates with another woman, and the resources are not
threatened, then the sexual infidelity is of lesser concern. |
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Term
Define polyandry and polygyny. Under what circumstances does each type of arrangement
make sense? |
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Definition
Polyandry: one woman weds more than one husband. This arrangement makes sense
in places like the harsh conditions in the highlands of Tibet where it is difficult for a
man and a woman to survive without the help of others. Here, a woman may marry
several brothers who can pool their resources and thereby produce more surviving
offspring then a monogamous relationship would.
Polygyny: one man weds more than one wife. This arrangement is more likely when
there is a steep social hierarchy, a generally rich environment so one family can
accumulate wealth, and occasional famines so the poor face some danger of starvation.
Under these conditions, a woman who joins a large wealthy family obtains greater
benefits than she likely would in a monogamous relationship, even if it means sharing
the husband with other women. |
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